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Aloha 


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EXPLORATIONS IN [TURKESTAN 


PAPEDEFIONFOFR 1904 


PREHISTORIC CIVILIZATIONS OF ANAU 


Origins, Growth, and Influence of Environment 


EDITED BY 
RAPHAEL PUMPELLY 


DIKECTOR OF, [THE EXPEDITION 


IN TWO VOLUMES—VOLUME TWO 





WASHINGTON, D. C. 
Published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington 
1908 





oe Oe 





CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 


PUBLICATION No. 73 
[VOLUME II] 


f J : 
PRESS OF GIBSON BROS. 
1908 


oem 





Del MLB 


Ancient Anau and the Oasis-World, and General Discussion of Results 
By RAPHAEL PUMPELLY 
Archeological Excavations in Anau and Old Merv . By Husert SCHMIDT 
Note on the Occurrence of Glazed Ware at Afrosiab, and of Large Jars at 
tinge see eee eee 6) ou By Homer HaAKIpper 
Description of the Kurgans of the Merv Oasis . By ELLSwoRTH HUNTINGTON 
Chemical Analyses of Metallic Implements . . . . . By F. A. Goocu 
Physiography of Central-Asian Deserts and Oases.. By R. WELLES PUMPELLY 
Animal Remains from the Excavations in Anau, and the Horse of Anau in its 
Relation to the Races of Domestic Horses . . By J. ULRICH DUERST 
Description of some Skulls from the North Kurgan, Anau . . By G. SERGI 
Some Human Remains found in the North Kurgan, Anau . By TH. MOoL.ison 
Wheat and Barley from the North Kurgan, Anau . By H. C. SCHELLENBERG 
Stone Implements and Skeletons excavated in Anau . By LANGDON WARNER 


iy at} 
oe ae : 
Hise On 





TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


SECOND VOLUME. 


Part V. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OaAsES. R. WELLES PUMPELLY. 


PAGE, 
eed YEE GEE eee ete cg. Scion Mensa sp eto gla, 6 ONY dl oak sink mye Fed me ae 243-298 
SP tenor OC ASIIt te ail dar GETINS W INCI ory Mr suse ese ik Sica ed vii hay cf aad = Bue wales bie bes wma 243-250 
Lidice Corti Git CRATaEeete C4 A LPSOLE DASIT) al Sukh esl tck anid He sete Ea ee phe ee aD S 243-244 
The three agencies of erosion and transportation, ice, water, and wind; and the five 
deposition zones, glacial, alluvial, lacustrian, flying sands, and loess arising 
CLLET GLY OLIN ee een rere eM See eee me Sieh Bichake AO See Me Benne are cea 244-246 
The interlapping of deposition zones effected by climatic oscillations.................. 247 
ee mycncal aevenmment ak diriceal gesert baste 12.09 og oie ve Ae es des oe deat 247-250 
eM Gee ena aiken ae OWES AL, ne a et en Mae ASS CHS oc iow BE eS ahah 6 ole Oe o> 251-259 
ream tCatUlresfOle LGw Palit Ler ee. Fae Ore at curd acto Siesta UeRlaats. cus Maia ae oe 251 
MCA ASIMEO PO TeAtwat tak tl tan arena aren sat Oe weak hee oins Arata eo aceon wt he oychoe helen ds 251-258 
Tentative reconstruction of Quaternary sequence of events................ 0000000 eee 259 
Ai eemre ieee RSAITE IIS elt Ghd SN hens a eg OE eg aha Kereoraca RAS SMe, ca wale adie ads 259-264 
Ram CtE Ye OL VaNeV Ton amr iA ion cis tre fal ain 64 tl Soe pre ee ee ols nia A Sk awe es aco s 259-261 
Sliaciology ang evinences Of mouttain movement «2... 55.5 eee de ei eels dae dees 261-264 
A tentative reconstriction of events in the Alai Valley... 2... 00... 0.6.2 eens ete 264 
DRG Scat Ea pS Ree ee a yh ee, Se er eee eek or ar 265-274 
SPSAR ACO CITIEAS ASIA DEM DIVA Les CIZ1l Uren’ Mngt Ren Mae (che A arte ac Peewee A On oars eee 265-270 
Cred tered ciireseOiathe (Elissara Vale YE. tient pues tele sis Ot lereeles Suk S ewhis Saas AAS Ste oes 270-274 
Tentative reconstruction of erosion cycles in Karategin and Hissar................... 274 
ene a AeA ea nt cM PO eR to. cid ger a ee WOR Peck Khe aye eek wae me AON boTa pated e% hp 275-282 
ie entender IOnoVeudinn! VAlICY. fo.c5 sate «is eww & wn tie cig wie en dhe Hom wets SN eS 276 
ner eee RE CM CES MOE ae ce od Pe enh itiam Sa hints Sais eee es BR bie toe WSs ca e's yh ee 
RE ee RN ee Re Aa AN ie EE Suhaa os ra ue Pt Se. ong baid Sods oh ve ea ale 4 < 277 
RAD OS NCC CO cae eae ote, 2088 5) e- ne a eng hares SC Waks Tighe. 6 pe aid ayes vn a em te wR os 277 
lees aee tC MMEOMO MCLG Tk ss Crp eth Aap leee cin Sdn ncn ice gece BA args Cag eee Ac as We A 278-279 
Pr CERIO COMM Car Rr, Mata el. hohe oak Aiea ce det Ovo odd ae hewn es hehe 279-282 
aeaeaey Sea MR PS iat gk ers es A a A 2 © ie ee gre esha a so Se EWR ees o's sh aes os 282-286 
Pao SE ay te Ta a ey ee a a ee 282-283 
The uptilted piedmonts of northwestern Tarim as a key to the past.................. 283-286 
Regier 6 serene COnnCe GS CRIA OY oe ecient Rok Sew a me Meh oa eee ae ey 286 
sents eye recoiariction OL fhe: past tay Lariting 0). gcc dec GAs ade Ge Boa Save dis ae ess 286 
Bare Ler ek sere a enrages er ia See 4 /s-crsiie waa Baar D Aeohvade eave 287-290 
TES) AEOAC SO LUELIT CS awe RRR IES ven coer pet SAIN Bis ORR er Sc ek oe Gn A eo 5 287 
PiGE. CCOMOME YCICS BASEL Gt TROT I BIGIG: POTS SA. ogc oe 5s coded ites sieve Kien ee eh 287 
pigcleks All gist ad BERS Ct hoon ic eg ho ar Mig ah gta Mire 9 a, Saar en RA a 287-289 
Rasvitial Ceforina tons Ole. PIAINS con. ts ca tyre wien ice ins. wad Mel Soup eS ae oy et 289 
Present mectiation in the GeposiGom zones ten. eas mea os < ont la a vase siden ed ae 290 
Reconstruction of past events of the Pergana Basin... (cl < de gs wie ee ee wee vs bee 290 
Eien tease DASITT heirs s'0 th alk on He ro. RRM Paha h 6 OED icia! hn G 6 ba wh mate. » Se) eee bin &s 291-298 
Complications and functional peculiarities arising from shape and size................ 291-292 
Phesacustrian, zone (Aralo-Caspian Sea: expansions)<.0°.) 25.5 tha ery see wee age aes» 292-294 
Recent developments in the alluvial and the flying-sands zones................0-0005 294-295 
Recentenauces ia the, course of the Oxs. oi; ....g0cc, ries Mek atime «pies Cone Ry 295-297 
Tentative reconstruction of the past in the Aralo-Caspian Basin..................... 298 
CHAPTH RENCE ACHS MM ey Tame eile selene Shh a ee ae taete a te eames oben ea 299-337 
Bt EG Siete. COP MICA TIPO PRCIIL Sh ys Sree ho 5.o ws nics « ul nih vac t. Seton arent pad kee Meret nigh Soha lng 299-307 
Man as a geologic factor of excavation, transportation and deposition, and a director of 
TATU CROSICONS soc. 554 cso lbh Slash eat Cte BUNA ary 5 eo oS 299-301 


Vv 


VI CONTENTS. 


PAGE, 
CHAPTER XV. OasEs.—Continued. 
The oasis as a geological problem.—Continued. 
Physitographic classification of oases. 2... 2. si 60s 43 Hewes or » tileie ee eee ees See 301-303 
T; Delta oasesys\.... Facer elites ous Svante abe aeeksunkenees okey t ace tebe Meee bce meee eae 301 
(a) OF fiver 5 ge.se iho ales eitigala op 00 Seine Skee Sine Shane 301 
(b) Of-small streams, 6.0.15. ccs one ci cieteceker ee ania. cite sy eto en 301 
II. River-bank and. flood-plain oases i: .-% 5. canis wisps eyes Woke p one npe 302 
IIL. High-valley oases.» «3055 ms. ba « she pone li aot ihe a ayaa dion ale a ae 302 
IV. Spring and well oases ....62....2 0 viscrnp + sities ge eben vip ce = ote eee 302 
V.‘Lake-shore 0aseSisicf5. 268 oc hai em) «suet 0 eke ee le outlier ieee 302-303 
Relations between erosion and burial in the obliteration of kurgans (oasis culture deposits) 303-307 
The ancient Alai Valley route:from Bactta to*Kasho ars gnats yeisuseiea siv eisieecrsn terrier eae 307-310 
Objective criteria of ancient long-used routes....2...2.5% 9.5 5 sevens sey a ee 307 
‘The three controlling factorsiof trade ,outes gem 6 is eee tae eee eae 307-308 
Advantages of the Alai Valley route is .6 cs. icc 5 ince ole 0 «pnw ple et eee 308-310 
Oases of the Zerafebran s «06 iss. tesBiance ok fa bea 6 dee nk RE ce 310-316 
River-bank (type IT) oases of the lower Zerafshan. 04. amines <c.eyes  hes e o sh oe 310-311 
Page Cs tne ee een Bee ME mR Afr. re eS hoa nos aime soo 311 
High-valley (type III) oases ofthe upper ‘Zeraishan., .7 sonst. datas ew we ee ee 311-316 
HiSSAL 6 ie ce so sie aga Fe sch bcs ets d adhe chs ws tae 9 Rage ns = lt ePaper ee hte rs COCs Ree a 316-317 
Abandoned oases of Ferganas..: 5-25. %.. = apse ob sions cere eis ue ei ei ek 317-320 
Kara Tepe (Western) » 6c. i issn © oS vateivin ele sins s = ald stare, oie dein ste nile aiee 2 ieee 317-318 
Beman “Tepe ... sive ss tigi «+ seg tie sida wre win eibmi st alote 50a, wy yoo 85a lela aie ne 318 
River-cut mounds of Millitinskayay 227 9c. atv wlesctais che geteye eu eke entice aetna 318-320 
AMAL... cies a3 oie «JoGiery sways sare Wy tie Kae mueue Bayete: mui i le eae ous he Vale ey vn meee rea 320-330 
Peculiarities of Anau as‘an oasis of type Tbe... 2%. 0. ue cie eit ven ee 320 
The building of a -tilting delta sc. 5c irae lee wn nie ae + ete earn ee 321 
Erosion cycles of the Anat Su im the miountains: ©. >... -ei-e> e ee e B22 
Recent decrease of surface drainage . 0... <s)0 0s wpe sso. seg ae on eee eee eee ee 322-324 
Shape of the Anau Delta and its surface irregularities wrought by man’s débris of occupa- 
tion and his control of alluvial-depositions << 2... - <=) tetera eee 324-327 
The ancient and the modern dunes of Kara Kum and the interbedding of the delta mar- 
gins: with them ...6, 5 00.26% s. . shceluia eels ole eho eho pees pet a ences er ee 327-328 
Analysis of shaft sections of the deposits from man, water, and wind................. 328-330 
Physitographic reconstruction of the past in Anati sp... een. nea 330 
{> Oases. of the Murg-ab, Delta ci a2) save avcintcrsvetate s civen cele least el seneucians tee ete eet eae or 330-337 
The river Murg-ab and the type peculiarities of the Merv oases, past and present...... 330-333 
Irregularities of the delta surface wrought by man’s débris of occupation and his control 
of ‘allirvial Gepositions ao. acy cag Sepa ciate mile abe gel coer tenant 333 
The great mound-of Odontche Tepe: 2.7 cccsn se sanmcirlak eis =e fo eee eee eee 334 
Analysis of shafts at Ghiaur Kala. The deposits from man, water, and wind.......... 334-336 
The stratigraphic order [(1) loess, (2) dune-sand, (3) alluvium] explained by climatic 
change to dry and recession of the delta .. 7.5.5.5. «obs tee ee ee 336-337 
Part VI. ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU, AND 
THE Horse OF ANAU IN ITS RELATION TO THE RACES 
oF Domestic Horses. J. ULRICH DUERST. 
CHAPTER XVI. INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL...........000ceecceeceeweees 341-343 
CHAPTER XVID io ais ies ciSiapin- wi wlsrsciecdn Sue ae ee le Oe 345-354 
GCarativora «ois iss as cig 65 os uc v alecelae plo laieie sles can Sn GOURD SNe eRe RRA ene 
Foxes of Anau J and Is 02 cc vows os dca ow ee nee ee 345-346 
Wolf of Anau I anatomically compated..... opis epee es eee eee 346-347 
Domestic Dog of Anau II anatomically compared with prehistoric and recent domestic 
and wild dogs <\o.:d5 5 ots, ecm eared rte ie ce ene Sect ene a ee 348-354 
Probably importéd into Anat..2:.c.< inpue eek urtes fxn Seen ee ae eee 350 
Rodentia ....6 05 abicxdd,cthcle Bev o wld de eae eI cee ee Core gy eer eae 354 


CONTENTS. VII 


PAGE, 
See eRe aN LO er We ee ee eee raged ra Pes ks wma ia od ea evan zh mune wee Meng a vind we 355-399 
CR Mae AM ee er nk, eres hae Cie shots cis tls, se a roe wes on eiw ho apa aa 355-358 
The pig of Anau I (Sus palustris Riitimeyer) anatomically compared with prehistoric and 
FECEIL WANE COMCELCIDING Sem aan vie Coie muasiita ares és se MS. ned 355-358 
Identical with Torfschwein (turbary pig) of European neolithic and bronze-age stations. . 355 
UR Rag SRT Bo a ere Be ag ee Oe eC a a eee er 359-382 
PeieenOteens Wid OX ( Os MMAGSCHS oes sie esl b ye keep cos vi cise ade Raw Swe veda ces 359-364 
Anatomically compared with fossil and prehistoric bovids of Eurasia and Egypt.... 359-369 
Domestic long-horned cattle (Bos taurus macroceros) of Anaul................2-005- 
Anatomically compared with wild and domestic cattle of Eurasia and Egypt....... 364-369 
Domesticated out of the wild Bos namadicus of Anaul................00.0 cece 369 
Identical with the Jong-horned Apis of early Egypt. :.. 22.0... 2.0000 e se enn naan nn 369 
Ovina. Wild sheep of Anau I (a) (Ovis vignet arkal) anatomically compared with Eurasi- 
BW aH) 68) Sigg es cud ate A Sie Git ROW SAS ao BAO DE OO) ENE ey nook ah ene 370-372 
IWoTMEStcESH CC sO A 12 lace ue eee ee TRON Tare hyn a RNS deere aryo resins adiic=s eegese) ss 372-380 
Progress of domestication out of Ovis vignei arkal shown in changes in size, and in 
CHATACTEIZOL DOMCISLEMCE MLC ern erature te iemie exe rei Sein delicate ai oeuey 372-373 
Towards end of Anau I a smaller breed established identical with Ovis aries palustris 
Riitimeyer, the Torfschaf of European neolithic and bronze-age stations. 
Anatomically compared with the wild ancestor and with domestic sheep of 
Wi atte RT ODM tee ns Mette es Cehigie, Met eee ey «sec cate ss 374-376 
Rocher perte  mee TTTLOO Mereees ee ee isla hg. Po dd Acide s orale eas en's mime ape esta) «as 376 
EUG eSce LOCO LOLeA Tall il Meneame sprees orate) oer Lactate chat hays ince ais «hao pia eae wae nies 376-380 
es eae eA CONICAL OTTERS ISOITE coos oo cn tai he w Sas hw ve ele wil PAO 374, 375, 377-379 
Capra hircus riitimeyert Duerst. Domestic goat of Anau II, anatomically compared..... 380-381 
Seat meae hr ete OLANE A TUELET Recs, Picts vik dace ake Sse os ely dliw’h sie Qin oleanin oe» oo 382 
ested eM RELL EPS ed rege, & eo) Mead esicew ag bd PtP Shea WO wee 8 Sig dine 04.4 a Whe irigse ace » 382 
Cafmraivles, (Ceri! ei 2 Urey 08 oo 5 des cancio-c 6 canis Ding a cic Dicey Pee iene, See nace create 383-384 
PSISSOU UCLY Umm LO TSETOL GANT UL Yr uses cede Freee ye Gy foe esos iti ous: cxoyaus Be foy teh eeareecs 7 eke aigG poten? ate 384-399 
Distinguishing anatomical characteristics of Western and Oriental horse groups and asses. 386 
tIeGHesteet itn bel DLCS) mein deere nia tie erodes ier cane alec tetsretcl eta aregs .csval ci eusteyanauays love 387, 388, 390 
PES (2e0S) era seen Gt) re ae i I cern aM eg ee 391-395 
yee anutemuons oF the horsé, from Anatt Moy. oe. 0. ogee rae we pss easiness we 396-399 
The diluvial horse differentiated into three types: Desert type (Equus caballus pumpellit), 
Steppe type (Equus caballus germanicus seu robustus) and Forest type 
PERsuee CLRAROELLS SECRUBADE 2k ONS. be neh sts Aa cashed Waco Kage Secs ork Boi sb) kis 399 
Re MOe ANI Garn a0 PARTE OTE STAY Nc iisisgies a'arm a'r wais',+ wale 001449 tine vue wieie aes wc gee pe we 399 
CHAPTER XIX. THe Horse oF ANAU IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY AND TO THE RACES OF 
ADO AHO JeWernsoe 4s opin ae Be ee pe Gee ae tke CRED Onn Gh oe Deeg oe Cree 401-431 
eR Ea aie OCCII OEE IO LIG POO UTI it ioe a nae 3 ese met Se =! i, ra Miwa ete oral Msg Fi ce nigidd vce. 401 
OSS atl Cl ist DLOSSI< HOTSES meepemen Mer orem ture or tons ens ts lcdiia a! Ja voasy avitdmray e. guys sUeirletele nce tGP meld eoreah wats 's 402 
FIOCSe Of Liter Uaterinar y pier ieee Ol, KOPN a2 alge ath tlk odes natin vgn age ha iat rh ew wee 402 
SL tG: ORSES O11 DEC OIS OEIC AItKLOS i are sis, oa a waned oily chain Wei ss vw eee 403 
‘he horses ofethe nN eolitinicvA oe see racrs sretcts cette os chokes fe maces © ote ie nearer wiles, ove'el 403 
Cramotovical differences’ between the ass.and horses do. joa.00 8. 5 se eteie sis Fe Fee Se ce av as 404-410 
The horses of Europe in the Copper, La Tene, Hallstadt, and Roman periods............... 410 
ees te Nrenistoric HOTSOS. cee ae meres oma ie fle ee eee aa eek ads et oa oles 41 
Ream ry aie tans ee scat ca Moet so ath ates eth PBs Bic wie ah eat aces GR Sine be edhe 8 si ove hala a 411-414 
Sree ee SMO TICL AES TOE OTE TIONS en che! ieee chen sins reg AS a Aaa tal) Hie eae leeds PR A emia AEN 414-417 
Risen A CREO OX TOTALS ete 707 = dine sista ors «ae Bae apc rolkega ke a rteter tee a odes wari ates ooo, 417-426 
Pace ated aires, CNG PTCHIstOric: NOTSCS aids sate a. ots oon es Spell egias Mp a with ainda oe a mea 426 
PPT IIGRONUA eRe ta ee che eee oe toe a cs Reng Bape 5, avs AE AORN alk RURAET 19. 0 Mc nde ies, wry aes 427 
Application of the measurements to determination of the relationship of the various prehistoric 
horses among themselves and to the horse of Anau.................-4-. 427 
Pe. Pefciar es NOCSER OL TCULODE cain: s cited Se vids icc! ola sia nie Se Bilis w medeie ain, «Mae ep laty as ns ale 428 
Only one type of wild horse over Europe and Asia in Pliocene and Pleistocene time; probably 
ES ANUIES SCN OIE CORO oma siete csi ce «aps Slee atv ahaa tg faleitenta vigor ae are Gs 428 


Equus przewalskit its last wild representative. . 1.2.0... ccc sees eee eee ween e eee e nee 428 


VIil CONTENTS. 


PAGE, 
CHAPTER XIX. THE HorsE oF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS.—Continued, 
With post-glacial changes of climate began parallel regional differentiation of vegetation and 
types of horsesco. 3 aa Cavers ss helsie a els alee oa ee aes eho eee 429 
The horse of Anau (Equus caballus pumpellii) brought to Europe in the bronze age......... 430 
Used dater in ennobling:Romian horses. sto... pitw,- sw ce Lies 5 oR ee eee ee ee 430 
Genealogical chart of the races of domesticdiorses! su. 240-2 «snes ees eee 431 
CHAPTER XOX. CONCLUDING REMARKS 9 oj. e cgeleel tier eee ete te On ot ee ee 433-442 
Modern stock-raising in ‘Transcaspia ov, .G\e. wo be ie we pint ses Ric Santee ena i eee 433 
Mucke’s theory of domestication 2.5 2)4 e126: scia 9 os ving sds = 0.0 us Ne ee 436 
Changes in relative percentages of different animals bred, due to secular climatic change...... 438 
Importation of turbary sheep:into’ Huropeé: 4. 09) <s6eu. «ic see a> eee ee oe ee 439 
Their occurrence at Schweizersbild discussed ./sa)-— 1.) ee ae 440 
Dispersion of Anau cattle over the prehistoric world 2%.) 002 2 enact oe) ere oaue ieeee 440 
Significance of the ox-cult: 2. 25.5 .0¥ 5.) oils oben ee eee ee 2 i en ee, 441 
Part VII. DESCRIPTION OF SOME SKULLS FROM THE NORTH KuRGAN, ANAU. G. SERGI. 
CHAPTER X XI. SKULLS FROM ANAUss .. % eos c des nb covets kin one 445-446 
Representatives of the two oldest cultures differ absolutely from Mongolian type; closely 
resemble Mediterranean type. «ca 4 aires fu a overs ne 446 © 
Table of measurements «2% :cc sc aie oc cedk saute Dw wo eet > a Kee ee 446 


Part VIII. Some HuMAN REMAINS FOUND IN THE NORTH KuRGAN, ANAU. ‘TH. MOLLISON. 


CHAPTER XXII. DEscRIPTION oF SOME HUMAN REMAINS FOUND IN THE NORTH KURGAN, 


ANAU © ao ooilel a a) Saty wine atapetdeg gino wae bye oe ti ahi ee ede ie cae eee 449-468 
Enumeration of the bones from five adult individtials.........3..) 4 sus se nas) ee 449 
The bones of individual I, from Culture II, described and racially compared................ 450-461 
The bones of individual-II, III, [V;and.V described... ....: .c.0% + ee ee 462 
The bones: of children/from Culture’ 0. 2.) a 2. ote ste oe cates cel) eee ee ee 463 
Estimation of the height:of the individuals... 2.65. i040 .s%s0 gos tae Eee ee ee 463 
Tabulation of the measurements’. 2...) deci oscr sistanetie cc cie. heceic.o ecg etene eee ee 465-467 
Bibliography . 2. 2v/a.« o: alsin Ge De Seg Seal oe oyu ow ele ha gle a le ey pwr 1g ne OO 468 


Part IX, WHEAT AND BARLEY FROM THE NORTH KURGAN, ANAU. 
H. C. SCHELLENBERG. 


CHAPTER XXIII. THE REMAINS OF PLANTS FROM THE NORTH KuRGAN, ANAU............-. 471-473 
Charcoal ‘fronmi Cultures Tand lL sisauhe soe als Sete nt greiner tere cease een ane 471 
Casts and siliceous skeletons of wheat and two-rowed barley from Culture I............... 471-473 
Appendix to Professor Schellenberg’s report, and-note by R. P..............00-e eee eees 473 


Part X. STONE IMPLEMENTS AND SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN ANAU. 
LANGDON WARNER. 


CHAPTER KXTV oes. ows ose lvid cn a gigis swan oie « Wim rust edie ib REL NORe Bl cist a 477-494 
Report on the larger stone implements of the Kurgans at Anau....................-..- 477-482 
Summary of work done in Terrace Il, North Kurgai. 9.0.2 5 ess. oe ey eee ee 482-484 
Skeletons‘excavated in North Kawgati. . cs ue. wep ates eee eee oe eee re 484-491 
Skeletons excavated in South Kurgan... 1. 2aes ee ee ee ee ae ee 491-494 


REsumMe 2 ican cae as vieaae Seale ve Be 0B cerse Ameen plete anes yan aan orien 494 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 


SECOND VOLUME. 


PLATE. FACING PAGE, 
Pamenrae ig enital Asia: (oatiarkane tOnG ASHGAL) ofcg ch wee ee se fs arate wn O8 co yee ehh eee 243 
fica twelve cross-sections of the Zerafshan) Valley oo. O). og 0. 6c cick Sad oc p See okie eee cele cu ee bees 278 
63. Profile of valley terraces and moraines from Osh to Kara Kul (1903)... .........-0 00200 ee eue 298 
PEMD OrmerOl Kilt ate in Mergarin ohios ey. cer th hes ihin O% chek Ss whe he Oe PEN Eek cos be sb wees 314 
ea ree Ctl 16 10 ere Rater ae A eerrivis ai Sites in bs na a Sul he 2S Od ete Wie ah Pen 320 
ee Lea em Oe cn nr EN ale Bie See sorcerers ings tied GOW A Aa aS WE RA A wee a BD 
gm Licinem Kea ArShiclt Caf ll OL enue Weave eae tee Meee ei Barra car cee Wien.’ oe See area celal EMM Senne sa, « 334 
See enn es | Vee GUC) SOLES TOML AAU. or ow ae Os sis hail Se CN wie Ho ae es Ee od ee ee Sa ee 346 
7 pee Canis matris optime from Anau compared with same from Bohemia. Bones of Sus from 

QM 5 AIC 6 oi oohs yciostp ob 6 Gan OIENO © Oi LIB © Cig hol BIC Res Corr Re ata oi Ce es ee 346 


73. Bones of Bos namadicus from Anau I, Bos brachyceros (Bohemian turbary),andcamelfrom AnauII 360 
74. Comparisons of basioccipital bones of Ovibos, Bubalus, and Taurus, and teeth of Yak, Bison, Bos, 


EREMOU WERTH OTATNS OS 2 ay 0 caitereyceaeet cation Cte Geer acca Ga OE er aI Oey ORCA an Ace REC ee ae 360 
PDB cRO RCI SLOT PATIANY IOAtl allen manent eck. ered oko! eit hae OR cre le ohio tre cite plete pie ahs He 370 
76. Horn-cores of Ovis, goat, and antelope. Metacarpus of Ovis and goat. Basal part of antler of 

MRE sOL NAM CUP LITIGATION testis ten dae DSR. serge wospe ten SENS hs wh scehes Mists sels) « sunray aide etiathaes 370 
77. Bones of Equus from Anau I and II and Solutré, and camel from Anau II................... 384 
78. Bones of Bos from Anau and Bizino, and skull of goat from Crete................0.000ee ears 384 
79 Egyptian Canis (marble, in the Louvre) and long-horned cattle (tomb of Manofer, 2600 B. ¢.).... . 384 
80. Skulls of Sus cristatus, after Rolleston, and Sus scrofa var, ferus, Germany..................-. 392 
81. Skull of European urus in British Museum, and Hungarian bull skull in Vienna Museum....... 392 
82. Skulls of long-horned ox from Nepal, India, and Ovws vigner from Ladak...................... 392 
83. Assyrian and Babylonian representations of wild bull and long-horned ox. Horn-cores and skull 

Se euataty COST PACE EIT OLE, MOV IAO) oi cece ae 2a ee kN oe OSE Ne LSU be a ee ae 396 
See C men eaeenesreciimure fromoNine velo .\.oc 2. . ten. oe Sie Aloe Se vedas he eed aed lew es bs 396 
85. Map showing distribution, ancient and modern, of Bos tawrus macroceros Duerst............... 400 


86. Map showing prehistoric and modern distribution of Ovzs aries palustris Riitimeyer (turbary sheep) 400 
87. Norma lateralis of skull of horse from pile-dwellings at Auvernier, Switzerland, compared with 


same view of skull of Egyptian prehistoric ass of Abadieh (IV dynasty).................. 410 
88. Norma verticalis of skulls of Equus przewalskit and various prehistoric horses................. 410 
89. Norma lateralis of skulls of Equus przewalskit and two prehistoric horses..................... 410 
go. Comparisons of metacarpi medii and metatarsi medii, Anau horse..................-.-0 000. 420 
PIMC atisuG Olle x Letucy WOUES wALIATIBNOTSE. «tice cuveidehe ts Hela fo eis Tp ale sda soa dials «ura 420 
See ends kuls Jrom. North Kurgan, #AnAt Sh ss teats ys ac lee ee epee eres mes Sie ae Se he 446 
94-96. Human extremity bones from Anau in comparison with those from other localities....... 464 
97. Glumes of wheat and particles of barley in potsherds from Anau, compared in microscopic views 

Wi theeGenta wile tall (aDAL leva matin amination Raly. teas tara) ork aie, s) cts Pele wiieatiavs adehevel sono 'sia)s¥eicvere seve 474 
TEXT-FIGURE. PAGE. 
et Nea ee Ee CER PCIICNE RSET EL Ut oe We 10 anf sia yep vlogs inks a leon evita Rash Sawa le ba Bure Sow ee eee 251 
432. A granite ridge at Kara Kul (showing the secular deflation of the Pamir).................... 252 
emmoand agnceareose tesidiiim, or defhation (kata Kil) iin. oc e.c. ccs sts 6 sms aS ws se wala seas 253 
434. Glacier of the Kara-at and a section of its valley 1.5 miles below (Kara Kul)................ 255 
435. A pool, where Kara Kul sediments have caved in over melting lobes of glacier ice............ 255 
436. An ice dome and its third and fourth epoch moraines in the foreground (Kara Kul)........... 256 
MeymnAT lacie Nottheastion Karay Kut see saan t letter cta: sie) apaoys, sek hada. sche Sse aks tes tue sles Rs alinie @rlaens. oreieieye 4 257 
ener eIPLLINIe 1th Ther A fas, Valle yy oh Neal ns bg gv titye a NT cae, ale wy he Wath wien Sates aes Sw Siatane 260 
er wuninanaking felt in/the Ala Valley facts. . shin vite iy pm re ose eee 'ayy io eeele Salen oes oe 261 
Peme orcLarar i iurieet Stacier (Aldi: VAMOY ) ren are tat de a noi hee s oa Nios ews Red viel ce oS oR Gi 262 
Wixoninvial terraces in the lower end. of the Alar Valley: 227. 6.2 ects cs wich oe mes hae ee ns kas 263 
Rea 11741 pu where it leaves the Alai: Valley toma aap axetscmigne a we certs ee PSG yes sz eS 5 688 265 
aaeern Galcna Bee of Karatepin with his hunting eagles. i. see aint eee be ie eee nee sees 266 
ume aCes CL ATI Ml Zi) Stl it) MR ATALCOIN ey sie alte ciate circa eile nop muted, GEM vas aca sat Gece 267 
meemahnridge over tie tird-cycle terrace 1m Karate gin oii amine ak ats wield eiiicia, cw Ve ve 35 Ole ils 268 
Feb NMCREA TESS as URE EN Dak alee OR Ri a Ne eR AA Oe deter ue boMe Wari ra evecare MR Stat ee 269 
Pee SW er Onta DIS (RK ATAte Li irc swe de ries wie euge Me eh ee eeitele Pan Ns adhe AS wy 6 270 
Seem RE ES Riis RUG SAUL SSN eS So enn 924, 0 ice ly ge oe vw iplg shell 8 ee nm, ad ee PTE. ease se 271 
cto dh, GINS ENUF gi ae Ver iN 0 Sek sry ee ORE)” Sree wom Rea AT cre Ok aches ce PERM aor eae aa ea oe we 27 
Peper eeerroaie of tue Piissar  VaUeys.ra ay: sel ee eas) cw <p coin Maer le Fe ping Gale wan, gave Pty. sys 272 
Penmaes rceus vette tLiSsdy” NEOUI LAINE; 75 Loe we oie. ~ Oh ae on tesie Wale ba tees aca Se ape lcig « ish aip 273 
AG tek Stcned 1001s 1 The Sardai-mMiona GOrge 6. as Paw epee bes nee Keanetlaes cee bees 275 
eae SLCC Ae FLISEAL VAMC Ys). 2 che eiole 5 stan Fe ie a's. nlc a aye aed We he ete Wiel Miella Re) era Alain 275 


x 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - 


TEXT-FIGURE. 


454. 
455. 
456. 
457. 
458. 
459. 
460. 
461. 
462. 


463. 
464. 
465. 
466. 
467. 
468. 
469. 
470. 
471. 
472. 
473. 
474. 
475. 
476. 
. Zerafshan:Galeha at Varuttm 2-2 <2. 2 <sicc vise «)o-n oie, 9 seeps eee 
. Zerafshan Galchas near the: glaciers. os. oc<.<5/. co.cc a eae ve ee 
, Zerafshan-Galchas (gentlemen) 22... 20:42. neles 26 os ads b oop ee eee 
. Zerafshan Galcha:with: his plow. «2.0.55. <2 20 Sis sep vie oe elie ee, Sane eee a 
» Rork Karr c.g. cis a Bs PR esr ccy cee Som oper ce al) cont raul cular ee ase ee 
. Urimitan Kaargaty icine sae six wile elo one cit site im abe efit sot <P DE co an oioe eet eer 
. Map and section of Kodishar Kurgan s..c, ©. << vy sce ave @ eo chee oisranenc etter erect een ene 
., The citadel of Hissar <<, ../5.:% £5 -yvrskele ath wisltm vo etsta sm Soa i 0 ea ea 
. River-cut mounds of Millitinskaya (Timur’s pate)... o.2 22s cs 2 eee 
. An abandoned system of irrigation terraees...j .... 20:5 oe ci 6/40 + none Se cei nl 
. A.canal gully in the abandoned irrigation terraces of Anat. 2... .2.0.. 40.6 eee ee ee ee 
. Map of the-Murg-ab Delta. -The Oasis of Merv: :<.2.. 0155.5... ae oe eee 
. Sketch-map of Odontche “Tepe QMlerv):. 5.5 cissc ied oes anal giatesueeaie eae te ate cre 
. Bos namadicus, after Lydekker; Indian Geological Surveys... 2. 4... -. ss ee 


A peak south of the Zerafshan Glacier -. 02 Jou. s senis se Cee ests are eee See ee 
Ice cave of the Zerafshan (taken from the darkness within, looking out)..............-...... 
Terraces of the Zerafshanl . ficig cc s4 = sans bite bo hd aes pins Rie Wines a et ee hcg oes eae ee 
Section of glacier-thrusted alluvium in the Zerafshan Valley 45 miles below the glacier........ 
The Zerafshan: Glacier 2... s/o. cok pooh iv gis ser oe ota plo ei ae ee Oe es oie eee ee 
Sketch-map of the end of the Zerafshan Glacier] 5 cipro tone tenes tte ole etl ee 
Section near‘the end ‘of the Yakich, Glacier 0.5 235: pe eee es ee re ee 
The Dargum canal in the up-warped loess-steppe of Samarkand.................+...+.+2-0- 


Vertical section of interlapping loess and alluvium in a 100-foot cliff of Obu-siob canal at crossing 


of road from Samarkand to Kumdi Sufiscc 226. 2.5 64.5.0 % opel eo te 
Terraces of the Markan Sut 05.0246 30. Sax Te bmn Sain ao ais Oe mets al a i 
Deflated ‘silts and residual sand-dunes: (Tarim) io. 2-1 ics tere ee 
Uptilted piedmonts of Margellan 235 0.5 5. oie wig viorae om ces 0's Wie Ahem s «5 8 2 Oe eile ee ae 
Manish Valley Terraces (in the Kopet Daglt Mountains)... 2... 26.6500: sess sens see eee 
Map of the Aralo-Caspian Sea expansions ((Konshin) 5.20. 2 co) wi te er re ictal ire ee 
Construction of a‘ house. (in the Hissar’ Valleyyic 225 cae ceeee 2 ee oe ee oe eee eee 
A ruined citadel’ of the lower Zerafshamie. 54%. 2 <p aces Sereteie oscil = eb ee en eee 
Diagram showing relation between erosion and burial of abandoned kurgans.................. 
A fortress in the Alai Valley on the ancient route from Bactra to Kashgar................... 
Ruins of the tomb, of Bibi, Khanum (Samarkand) 22-2205 ~ cs 212-7 os ne cree ore eee ee 
Profile of “Afrosiab . 22 0% 1. fbic% b> ao nlerae swe See ge aie ees cere > eee ee eee 
Cliff-trail up. the Zerafshan gorge’. o. 22 sSs2. sca ob to es ee Se ee ee 
A “high ‘valley oasis” of the: Zerafshanporge. <. = sc. ssn <oie  s se ee ee 
A village built of cobble-stones laid with sun-dried bricks (Zerafshan gorge)................. 


. Comparative cross-sections of human femora from! Anat... 5... - s+ - eoe  eee eeeee 
. Comparative cross-sections of duman leg bones from: Anau >)... eee ee ee 
. Sagittal sections through the tibia-talus: joint... ..25 ss". «csc . vas we ae 


STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM THE NORTH AND SOUTH KURGANS. 


496-502. Stone implements from North and South Kurgans.................2cccceccccsvccscses 
503-508. Stone,implements from North Kurpams 32-0 6 ae4.. sees ne oie ee 
509-516. Stone implements from South Kurgan. (202-7. oe i a waitin ie ie ee 
517-524. Pestles and’ mullers from: South Kurgan 7). 4... 0. eee eee 
525-528. Stone implenients fron1 South Kurgan: o.0ct 22. 2. eis scieie oe ieielc Sars oe tee Shee eee 
529, 530. Stone implements from Poth Kirgan. 27 < peee ose ee eee ee 


a ea 


Type of mealing-stone im both kurgans..3 « ... .s omc ds = 5.45 75 22s se eee 


532,533. stone mortars from South Kairos, Cil tyre Vee ye ree cee 


SKELETONS FROM THE NORTH AND SOUTH KURGANS. 


534-536. Nos. 5,2, and 3, Terrace I, North Karpanio.) c. goa ore a, «ne ee ee 
537-539. No. 4, Terrace III, and Nos. 6 and 7, Terrace II, North Kurgan...................-00%- 
540-542. No 8, Terrace VIII, and Nos. 11 and 14, Terrace II, North Kurgan..................-. 
543-545. Nos. 16 and 17, East Gallery, and No. 18, North Digging I, North Kurgan.............. 
546-548. Nos. 19 and 23, Terrace B, and No. 28, Terrace C, South Kurgan..................0028- 





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PART V. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 
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By R. WELLES PUMPELLY. 


' [CHAPTERS XIV, Xv. PLATES 61-70.] 





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CHAPTER XIV.—DESERTS. 


As the earliest traces of man in Central Asia show him living in oases, as he 
does to-day, the archeology of that region is centered on a study of the oases of 
antiquity, and this study must include surrounding deserts, for climatic and 
topographic changes have been everywhere so pronounced and have left records 
so intimately interwoven with the records of man that no comprehensive search 
into the conditions of his past life in Central Asia can be undertaken without some 
fundamental ideas about the cause and effect of desert changes. 

For our purpose a map of Asia should be regarded as no more than a passing 
picture of a struggle between land and sea, and mountains and storms—but one 
phase in the evolution of a continent. And it is not only the archeologist and 
physiographer or those who probe into the remote past who must assume this 
dynamic point of view. The pace of continental change is so fast that a man in 
his lifetime can watch the trend of great events, the change of great features, and 
know that hardly a branch of human affairs exists but must feel the effect. 


THE DESERT BASIN AS AN ORGANIC WHOLE. 


Already in early Pliocene time Asia in her immensity had developed a vast 
interior region of desert basins, into which were spread the wastes of then large 
existing mountain masses, the cores of which still remain as worn-down granites 
of the Tian Shan, Pamir, and Tibet. When treated as an organic whole a desert 
basin forms one of the most interesting features of our planet, and the laws of 
Nature, under which its oases are controlled, must be of vital interest to man. 


THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS OF A DESERT BASIN. 


For our purpose this organic whole includes the area that drains thereto and 
may be divided into two parts—the inclosing mountains, ever worn into new 
relief by the storms of geologic time, and the plains they have created by the slow 
building, layer on layer, of their débris brought down by the waters and winds 
of those storms. ‘The first requisite of a desert basin is aridity, sparsity of vegeta- 
tion, and too little rainfall to carry the products of erosion away to the ocean. 
From the beginning of its definition as a desert basin self-contained, or hydro- 
graphically isolated from the ocean, each basin was destined to accumulate on 
its plains the débris of erosion sent from its inclosing ranges, and the inevitable 
sinking of the earth’s crust that yielded as that load increased to a thickness of 
many thousand feet appears to have resulted in a corresponding upward displace- 
ment of its border ranges. How long this great process has been in operation may 
be conjectured from the immensity of beds of fine red desert strata that reach a 
thickness of many thousand feet where exposed on the uptilted borders of the 

243 


244 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


Gobi basin. ‘There, as in Fergana and along the base of the Kopet Dagh, these 
uptilted piedmont formations are a magnificent corroboration of the idea of dis- 
placement, as well as of Suess’s theory of the encroachment of mountains on plains. 

A desert basin, then, is organically divided between mountains and plains, 
but this is only the beginning of our classification. Functionally, the plains are 
a vast geologic mill in which the material received is differentially assorted into 
layers of fine and coarse alluvium, whereof the surface is further sifted into loess 
and flying sands ere it comes to rest under succeeding layers; and this mill is 
worked by wind and water. It is a plain whereon the muddy floods of spring 
and fall give rise to momentary shoals of water spread over many scores of square 
miles, welcome lakes that vanish under the burning sun, to leave mirage and wind- 
swept barrenness of sandstorms and yellow days. But of this water some remains 
more permanently wherever the supply is in excess of evaporation. ‘The life of 
a desert lake or sea is, according to circumstances, anything from a day to a cycle 
of geologic time; anything from the momentary existence of a thin watery sheet 
far out among the dunes to the history of an Aral Sea. 

Thus arise four marked subdivisions of deposition—alluvial, lacustrian, flying 
sands, and loess—two of water and two of wind. Lastly, but perhaps most 
important in records of Quaternary change is the fifth subdivision of deposition, 
glacial ‘‘till.’”’ A desert basin is thus divided into areas of erosion and deposition, 
mountains and plains; the plains are divided into four zones—alluvial, lacustrian, 
flying sands, and loess—and the loess zone includes a portion of the mountains, 
while a fifth subdivision of deposition, glacial, is found on the higher mountains, 


THE THREE AGENCIES OF EROSION AND FIVE DEPOSITION ZONES. 


There are three agencies of erosion and transportation, ice, water, and wind, 
and five deposition zones, glacial, alluvial, lacustrian, flying sands, and loess 
arising therefrom. 

Rising among the glaciers and snow-clad peaks of the inclosing mountains, 
small and large silt-laden streams discharge upon the plains. Flood gives way to 
the drought of a burning sun that stirs the atmosphere into vast cyclonic storms 
and spiral dust-whorls—tall, shadowy forms that come and go in ever-changing 
shape, born out of the horizon to wander a while and vanish. By these atmos- 
pheric disturbances the surface materials are consumed and sifted over, digested 
into drifting sands and far-blown dust. Most of the dust is borne far away to rest 
as loess in the grass of high valleys and plateaus flanking the peripheral mountains, 
for it can not survive a wind on barren surface; but sand moves slowly to and fro 
in the shifting winds, and only that which gets beyond the ultimate shores of 
alluvial activity accumulates to form the larger masses we call dunes. Probably 
the most important source of this sand lies in the more or less impure sandspits 
that are invariably to be found after flood along distributary channels of silting 
streams. Any shifting aggregations that have not found their way onto an area 
more or less permanently free from alluvial activity must suffer rearrangement 
by the next flood, but in the vast nuclei of flying sands that characterize the desert 
plains we have ample proof of the large scale at which the wind has been successful. 


DESERTS. 245 


Interior brackish seas and lakes, fed by the more constant flow of larger rivers, 
have played an important rdle in the history of the two great desert basins of 
Eastern and Western Turkestan. The surface area of a landlocked sea is a direct 
function of the climate of its basin. Its salinity varies (1) according to antiquity, 
(2) in some instances according to whether overflow took place, and (3) the relations 
between its surface area and amount of salt in its supplying streams. 

Although at first thought these appear to be the only controlling factors of 
salinity, there are yet four considerations, four ways in which an interior sea may 
diminish in salinity or totally lose its salt. It may dry up entirely for a while 
and the salt thus precipitated over its bottom be either (4) blown away or (5) 
so perfectly buried by sand or silt that future water is unable to redissolve it; 
(6) much of the salt may be precipitated in a gulf with such a narrow and shallow 
strait that water evaporates faster than it comes in from the mother sea, as it 
is now doing in the Kara Bugas and other gulfs of the Caspian. There the super- 
saturation is death to all sea life that comes in with the current—a graveyard 
of floating fish. Lastly, (7) as a theoretical possibility, sufficiently rapid sinking 
of the bottom or falling-in of the earth’s crust, such as appears to have taken place 
in the southern half of the Caspian, would give rise to a greater volume for the 
original surface area. ‘Therefore, since the surface area is a definite function of 
climate, it is obvious that if the volume were increased rapidly enough dilution 
would take place if the rainfall remained constant over the catch-basins of its 
supplying streams. To sum it up in a more general way, it may be said that, with 
a given topography and given chemical nature of rocks drained to start with, both the 
salinity and surface area of a landlocked sea depend upon the variations of climate and 
crustal movement that may take place over its basin. These facts are of fundamental 
importance in the consideration of lake-shore oases or type V.* It is from a study 
of the ancient shore-lines, sediments, soundings, and fauna of now shrunken seas 
and dried-up lakes that important records bearing on the archeology as well as 
physiography of Central Asia are to be drawn. 

The whole peripheral area of surrounding mountains is, in the long run, sub- 
jected to erosion and worn down to build the plains; but for closer analysis it 
is functionally subdivided into areas of erosion and deposition, with limits more 
or less temporary or unstable in definition. First, the high crests and valleys 
of greater ranges give rise to glacial zones of ice mantles and valley glaciers of 
which the interior portions are seats of glacial erosion, the margins and termini 
seats of glacial deposition. Second, the lower plateaus and foothills of pasture 
land have been the chief seat of loess accumulation—the settling-ground of dust 
blown up from the plains and down from the more arid heights of deflating rocks. 
Third, the greater areas of peripheral mountains have developed intricate basin- 
systems, some as half-closed valleys tributary to the great plains, others isolated 
or wholly inclosed, imitating on a small scale the greater scheme of which they 
form a part. 








*Chapter xv, Physiographic Classification of Oases, p. 301. 


246 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


Wind, water, and ice erode the mountains and have particular deposition 
areas within the highlands, where part of their products accumulate more or less 
temporarily to form loess, alluvium, and moraine. But as these positions are, 
in the course of long time, unstable, practically all the products of erosion must 
ultimately find repose in strata of the great interior plains. Moraines, however, 
are very resistant to transportation from their zone, and massive remnants of 
those deposited in even the beginning of the glacial period still survive in situ; 
and it is still possible to recognize sections of alluvium and its wind-blown deriva- 
tives, sand and loess, deposited during the glacial period on now dissected high- 
lands and broad valley terraces. 

Within the latitudes of Central Asia, glacial deposits are confined to the 
peripheral mountains of desert basins. Areas of alluvium, loess, flying sands, 
and lacustrian deposits are found more or less unstable on the highlands, while 
the great alluvium, flying sands, and lacustrian deposits have their special, well- 
defined, and concentric zones respectively one within the other on the great 
interior plains of a basin. Loess and flying sands are in large part the wind- 
blown derivatives of spread-out alluvium, but they are undoubtedly much added 
to from direct deflation of the more arid highlands—a fact to be demonstrated 
in the section on the Northern Pamir. As lake deposits are simply modified 
alluvium, there are only four primary derivatives of the original mountain masses— 
moraine, alluvium, loess, and flying sands; and much of the alluvium is modified 
moraine and the direct charge of glacial grindings. 

An ideal desert basin, not over about 100 miles across from crest to crest, 
would be completely inclosed by mountain ranges. Its glacial zone would be a 
periphery of ice mantling the crests and extending into the heads of high valleys; 
its loess zone would flank the base of the mountains thus encircling the plains; 
its alluvial zone would lie next inside as a piedmont belt of the plains; while the 
flying-sands zone would lie next within as a wide belt surrounding the lacustrian 
zone or brackish sea of the middle of the basin, reached by large streams rising in 
the glacial zone and crossing the loess, alluvial, and flying sands. 

In Western Turkestan the lacustrian, alluvial, flying-sands, and loess areas 
are now four well-defined zones, respectively one within the other, loess on the 
outside, while glacial deposits are naturally confined to the higher mountains 
and nowhere reach below an elevation of 7,000 feet. As an exception to this 
generality, the rivers Amu and Syr penetrate to their inland sea, the Aral, thus 
dividing the zone of flying sands with two narrow extensions of the alluvial. The 
lacustrian is thus united with the alluvial zone, and this is more often the case 
in Eastern Turkestan, where flying sands are divided into several wide nuclei 
by long rivers that traverse the basin. Although it is to future exploration that 
we must look for comprehensive records, a general outline of past conditions 
may be construed from our observations on the five zones, together with sections 
in earlier layers, exemplified and checked by a study of the topography of erosion. 


DESERTS. 247 


THE INTERLAPPING OF DEPOSITION ZONES EFFECTED BY CLIMATIC OSCILLATIONS. 


Owing to their low altitude and the hot column of air rising from them, rela- 
tively little rain falls on the plains and precipitation is for the most part confined 
to snow upon the mountains. Obviously, a regional decrease in precipitation 
involves a general shrinkage of glaciers, lakes, and areas of alluvial activity, and 
a sympathetic expansion of flying sands over abandoned portions of both lacustrian 
and alluvial zones, while the alluvial zone would recede mountainwards, encroaching 
on the loess zone, itself undergoing shrinkage for lack of rainfall on areas where 
grass had scarcely existed under the old supply. And it would be vice versa with 
increased precipitation. Continued oscillations, then, would bring about a column 
with alternating lacustrian sediments and modified dune-sand on the inner belt 
of overlap, one of alluvium and dune-sand on the middle belt, and one of alluvium 
and loess on the outer belt of overlap, while buried erosion surfaces of dead loess 
should be indicated in sections of loess where it has felt the change. And there 
would be successive moraines of different epochs overlying each other in the 
glacial zone. If these oscillations were sufficiently great, the middle belt of over- 
lap would alternate with loess, alluvium, and dune-sand repeated in that order, 
unless the topography was such that an interior sea would expand to consume 
the whole area. ‘Thus would climatic change record itself. 

The task of finding records in the mountains is in some ways easier than on 
the plains, in others harder; records there are on a large scale, but those of climatic 
variations are so tangled with those of crustal movements that, if it were not 
the constancy of upward movement, which in itself seems to involve a peculiar 
kind of climatic change, the task would be well-nigh impossible. Moreover, 
data like that of the shifting of man’s abode, so often found on the plains, are 
almost lacking in the mountains. It is to the topography and glaciology that we 
must turn. If uplift of the mountains had only been so simple as an equal and 
unbroken uplift of all the ranges together, it would be an easy thing to trace the 
stages of topographical developments; but unfortunately it is the inequality of 
recent uplift that gives the mountains some of their most striking features, fault- 
scarps and high-tilted blocks. 


THE CYCLICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AN IDEAL DESERT BASIN. 


To throw any light on those changes enacted by the deserts of Central Asia 
since the advent of man upon them, it is necessary to incorporate a reconstruction 
far back into the four controlling and more or less interdependent variables—uplift, 
erosion, aggradation, and climate. The most vital question is, What was the 
climate at any given time? But its solution depends much on the other three. 
Beginning with a theoretical development of these variables, let us picture the 
life of an ideal desert basin of the simplest kind. Born under the impulse of terres- 
trial forces, spontaneous adjustments in the stresses of our planet’s crust, its 
complete periphery of high mountain ranges would then be left to the tools of 
solar energy; and the aspect of such a basin as a whole would alternate between 


248 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


the extremes of a grand cyclical evolution worked by solar energy under the 
direction of gravity, a geologic drama enacted by mountains and storms round 
the plains whereto the mountains crumble. Picture its massive ranges slowly 
wearing away into their rivers and the steady building of the plains till naught 
but the low relief of a gently rolling surface, half-buried in its own piedmonts 
remains of their once colossal heights. The shores of its wide interior sea are 
after this not so desolate but that sufficient rain falls to nourish grass over the 
surrounding steppes, rain from the moisture that would have been combed out 
by the mountains when they were higher. It is a basin worn to low relief and, 
therefore, receives a precipitation more evenly distributed over space and time. 
But though this does mean that some of the water which formerly found its way 
into the rivers and sea must suffer direct reevaporation on the steppes, and thus 
expand the loess zone, we must believe that so much more will find its way from 
the oceans to the basin that its rivers and sea would swell to relatively high shores. 

This brings us to a critical point, the end of the first cycle—a point of minimum 
relief, when so many thousands of feet have been unloaded from the mountains 
and loaded onto the plains that the ultimate strength of the already warping 
earth’s crust is reached, and the shearing stresses set up along the borders of the 
plains result in far-reaching faults. Then begins the second cycle with a long 
period, during which the plains sink slowly and the mountains rise by displacement. 
We can watch the gently graded hydrographic systems thus uplifted changed 
into torrential streams deep canyoning the rising peneplain and gently rolling 
slopes of worn-down mountain cores, while on the higher masses the acceleration 
of glacial conditions is reexpanding remnant ice-domes and even giving birth to 
advancing valley glaciers. This process continues till the crust has almost reached 
an equilibrium and regains its old rigidity. 

The first cycle is completed; and we have returned to a relatively greater 
concentration of precipitation on the mountains and intense aridity of the plains. 
Less moisture finds its way from the oceans to the basins and a shrinkage of rivers 
and sea has lowered their shores. Once more there is a desolate expanse of flying 
sands and relatively little grass and loess on the steppes. Our second cycle now 
is drawing to a close; a rapid carving of the mountains into deep canyons soon 
widened into immense gorges floored with broad flood-plains develops into the 
graded conditions during the crustal rest in the end of the second cycle. 

The continued shifting of load thus brought about ultimately results in a 
second yield more or less near the old lines of weakness, and a third cycle is ushered 
in as the plains go down and the mountains rise again. New canyons thus incised 
in the old valley-floors have cut down, leaving a terrace above. The mountains 
are perhaps higher, but sharper in relief, and the interior sea has shrunken. Con- 
tinued cycles result in manifoldly terraced valleys and a series of abandoned shores 
or terraces along the coasts of our interior sea, and an interlapping of the deposi- 
tion zones. 

The actual course of Central Asia’s development has been more complex 
than that of ideally simple basins. The Eastern or Tarim basin is, to be sure, 


DESERTS. 249 


practically closed around by high ranges of the Tian Shan, Pamir, Karakoram, 
and Altin Tagh, and comes near to an ideal type. But the Western basin, the 
one most studied by us, still lies open out over the low steppes of Siberia and 
Southern Russia, with but little protection from the Ust-Urt, or low-domed ending 
of the Urals. It is, therefore, a basin less isolated and less independent in its 
variations of climate than Tarim and other divisions of the Gobi. We must 
expect to find that it was more directly influenced by the Quaternary ice mantle 
over Russia, as well as by the mundane change that brought about that ice. And, 
as already hinted, the cyclical uplifting of mountains was by no means simple, but 
took place in huge block-masses rising and tilting in various degrees and relations. 

Other facts not brought out by our imaginary basin, but of marked importance 
in all large ones, are the disturbances resulting from unequal loading of different 
areas and the encroachment of mountains on plains by migration of the tilted 
piedmont belt. This is especially well exampled in the western part of Tarim, 
where the strata have been tilted up, forming long ridges several hundred feet 
high with fault-scarps facing mountainwards and surmounted by gentle slopes 
towards the center of the basin. There are sometimes several parallel to each 
other and 30 or 4o miles apart, the innermost youngest in appearance as though 
migrating from the mountains inwards, stage by stage, to follow the zone of maxi- 
mum deposition-load as it moved inwards from cycle to cycle. Why this encroach- 
ment took place we can only guess, but that guess must fit in perfectly with the 
whole scheme. 

I have spoken of the mountains rising by displacement, and there may have 
been some doubt as to how that displacement took place. Was it flow in the 
hard crust of the earth, which is thought to be miles deep? Or was it a displace- 
ment in the supposed magma beneath? There has been a prevalent idea that 
some ranges piled up from overriding folds supplied by horizontal thrusting from 
both sides, and that others formed by simple folding on lines normal to horizontal 
compression, thrust in either case arising from a general contraction of the earth 
and wrinkling of its crust. That such was the primal origin of our Central-Asian 
ranges may be assumed, as far as this report is concerned. Indeed, the structure 
of their interior portions would lead to that conclusion. But without entering at 
all into a discussion of their primal origin, a thing that lies back in one of the 
earth’s great mountain-building epochs, we are still confronted by that series of 
peculiar secondary movements of a desert basin with its mountains. 

Then, to explain the hypothesis of shifting-load displacement hitherto 
assumed: The plains sank with their load of sediments; of that we have ample 
proof both in the fault-scarps of high-uplifted blocks along their borders, and 
in the Askhabad well-boring, 2,200 feet deep, which penetrated the plains to 1,400 
feet below the sea-level, and even then remained in red alluvium and loess like 
that laid down on them to-day. It is absurd to suppose they sank into a cavity; 
we must assume that matter was displaced. The obvious corollary is that what- 
ever displacement took place was to the nearest zone of weakness of the earth’s 
crust, and there is twofold reason for supposing that the mountains lay over 


250 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


that zone. ‘To begin with, their existence resulted from a tendency to yield along 
that line and a great load once borne by them has been taken off. So the plains 
sink and it would seem the mountains tend to rise and that the displacement 
is to beneath the mountains. Assuming this, we still have to account for uptilting 
of piedmonts along the border, and often two or more such lines nosed up with 
fault-scarps facing the mountains. 

This fact is the key to a deep-seated process that forms an important corol- 
lary to such displacement. Deep-buried, flat formations are under an enormous 
pressure that will squash the strata into thinner layers, if horizontal expansion 
is possible. There is, therefore, reason to believe that such a sinking of the 
plains of a desert basin involves a deep-seated squashing of the layers, a flat 
squashing out into folding in the nearest zone of yielding weakness, 7. e., under 
the bordering ranges that rise therefrom. And the crust being broken along 
the'shearing lines, this zone dies out into bending moments somewhat under the 
plains, so that minor folding may take place under there also and bend up the 
piedmont edge. It is also conceivable that more outlying folds would result 
with their surface phenomena; that is, the fault-scarps of our uptilted piedmonts 
probably pass beneath into monoclinal continuity or other folding of our squash- 
thrusted layers. 

One of the most striking facts about Nature, especially geology, is the perti- 
nacity of habit and the accumulative power of habit to overcome its obstacles. 
It is to this that we must attribute the fact that in reality each succeeding cycle of 
our process appears to have occupied less time than the one before, and that the 
first was vastly the longest. Moreover, it is only logical to suppose that it took 
a much greater shifting of load and, therefore, a much longer time to shear the 
crust on a virgin line than to renew that shearing in an already weakened zone. 
We do not intend to assume that no other terrestrial movements took place during 
all this time, nor that some more regional or mundane change of climate did 
not have its influence on these more local changes. All that is possible now, 
even in a tentative way, is to trace the influence of a desert basin on itself and 
try to superimpose its climatic cycles on those phases that it felt from the mundane 
glacial period. j 

Having offered these explanations and methods of attack with the above 
working hypothesis, we may analyze a series of notes on land forms. Beginning 
with the Pamir (Roof of the World), the following sections of this chapter will 
take up certain valleys and the chief basins of Central Asia, and each section 
will close with a tentative physiographic reconstruction of the past. 


DESERTS. 251 


THE NORTHERN PAMIR. 
GREAT FEATURES OF THE PAMIR. 


As a general key to what has been happening in the mountains, the Northern 
Pamir with its border ranges stands paramount. On a map of Asia it appears 
as a massive knot of intersecting ranges, where high members of the Tian Shan 
system conflict with a northwestern extension of that immense plateau of moun- 
tains called Tibet. Offhand, we should expect to find a heavy precipitation of 
snow upon such a high uplifted mass. But looking down upon it in reality we 
behold a desolate expanse of barren clay and stone, with only here and there 
a small white blotch of snow, and some few desert lakes; a very high plateau 
crisscrossed by mountain ranges inclosing a multitude of broad barren steppes 
that sweep in graceful curves from range to range. While some of these are trav- 
ersed by streams, many of them are undrained depressions with or without lakes. 
We look upon a vast, extremely arid wilderness, void of trees and almost without 
any vegetation; a nude expanse of gray desert steppes and worn-down mountains 
with many-colored cliffs, of which the higher rise to white-crusted domes of ice. 





Fig. 431.—Lake Kara Kul (North End). 


This remarkable aridity is perhaps the most emphatic demonstration of 
Central Asia’s isolation from moisture. In the Pamir we have a region whose 
depressions lie from 13,000 to 15,000 feet above the ocean, and whose mountains 
rise to from 18,000 to 24,000 feet in height. Similar latitudes elsewhere record 
a snow-line of 10,000 feet elevation, but now we are dealing with an interior region 
surrounded by the greatest mountains and deserts of the world. It is, therefore, 
logical to find the snow-line at 16,000 feet with Sven Hedin’s report of less than 
1-inch precipitation over Kara Kul, the salt lake of its widest basin. The Southern 
Pamir is less arid, as it receives about all the precipitation of southern winds 
left after the Hindu-kush and Karakoram have had their share. 


THE BASIN OF GREAT KARA KUL. 


The basin of Great Kara Kul was studied on two expeditions; the first in 
1903, under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the second 
in 1904, an independent exploration, from which much of my data on other regions 
will be drawn. And though the basin has been discussed in my first year’s report 
some repetition is important for the sake of correlation. 


252 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


It is an undrained depression 20 miles in diameter, with a lake 8 miles wide 
nearly divided by two hilly peninsulas of ledge rising from the sediments of its 
northern and southern shores. Whether it is wholly the result of moraine damming 
or in part a genuine structural basin is not certain. The bottom of the eastern 
half of the lake slopes as a continuation of a 3-mile-wide belt of abandoned sediment 
on that side, to a depth of only 50 feet near the peninsula. But a deep trough 
of 700 feet of water with steep ledge shores forms its western half and appears 
to be a continuation of a narrow gap in the mountains to the south. The inclosing 
mountains are of granite and highly tilted shales and crystalline limestones, 
while the peninsula is of granite and vertical slate. We are dealing with the 
core of an ancient mass. 

Kara Kul is a lake of bitter salt water. Its sloping shores are white with 
salt accumulated into low ridges, where the brine from each wave wetting has 
dried out after the recession. And behind some of these there are lagoons of 


Vo 


x4 








Fig. 432.—A Granite Ridge at Kara Kul (showing the secular Deflation of the Pamir). 


brine, collected from the overflow of large waves, thus extending the white salt 
belt 100 feet or more on shore. During summer there are ducks and water-fowl 
that feed on the wide-bladed slimy grass growing in shallow water. 

On this high desert no man lives, and those who cross by caravan have diffi- 
culty in finding fodder and water, as but little grass is found below the water-. 
courses on high moraines, and even larger streams are dry by day. It is 10 o’clock 
at night ere the glacial water melted by day has accumulated and reached the 
steppes to run off before sunrise. A few small areas of thin, scattered wire-grass 
are found in shallow depressions near the lake, and a scrubby desert weed with 
long roots serves for fuel. Otherwise, the plain is void of life in summer. During 
winter large herds of Ovis poli, the great-horned wild sheep for which Kara Kul 
is famous, descend from their snow-bound mountains, to hunt for these rare bits 
of grass. By summer they live with the rabbits and marmots high up under 


DESERTS. 253 


the snow-line. I have counted over a hundred in sight at once, ten of them big 
old rams standing apart, and the rest all ewes and younger ones. Save for the 
Kirghiz hunters who appear at rare intervals to stalk them with medieval fuse- 
guns, they live unmolested. 

Nowhere is there a more desolate land. It is a desert of unexpected forms, 
time-crumbled mountains and wind-worn cliffs, strange hollow and pitted bowlders, 
and sand-polished stones, efflorescent salt-plains and drifting dunes, with here 
and there the scattered remnants of an old bleached skeleton with sun-cracked 
horns. Limestone bowlders dropped on the plain by floating ice, when the lake 
stood higher and glaciers came far down, have cracked in the sun and crumbled 
to conical piles, while whole mountains of the same rock stand shrouded in their 
own remains. Perhaps the most remarkable example of desert disintegration 
is found in the granite mountains ranging on the east. ‘There whole mountains 
are fast crumbling to arkose and sand from which some few honeycombed slabs 
project as remnant wind-worn ridges. Such are the features wrought by an arid 
sun and shade, with a range of 80° F. from day to night; the records of diurnal 
change revolving through long time. 














Fig. 433.—Sand and Arkose Residuum of Deflation (Kara Kul). 


And what has become of all the fine stuff, the dust inevitably given off in 
such a colossal crumbling of the land? It is nearly absent from the surface, as, 
indeed, it could not long remain on barren, wind-swept ground. ‘The few inches 
of loess found here and there below the ice and in tiny patches of grass along its 
streams can not account for the dust of ages. It must be somewhere, and, if not 
here, we must conclude that it was ever blown away by the storms that come 
and go, blown away to settle in the grass of other, less arid, regions. 

Around the lake we find evidence of its former wide expansions in beaches, 
respectively 60, 120, and 200 feet above the present surface, and apparently one 
at 320 feet nearly obliterated. The lower ones are comparatively fresh and indi- 
cate but short existence at their levels. These expansions seem to correspond 
in relative magnitude and antiquity to the moraines that now lie in front of various 
surrounding valleys, and which are clearly divided into at least three glacial epochs, 
and a fourth much more recent advance. 


254 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


My report of 1903 has set forth many reasons for correlating the expansions 
of Lake Kara Kul with its glacial epochs. Avoiding a repetition of detailed 
explanations, the trend of events may be summarized as follows: During Pliocene 
time the Pamir was a region of high mountains which by early Quaternary time 
had been eroded to the core with a topography of worn-down, rather gentle slopes 
and wide valleys. ‘Then took place that vast uplift which throughout most of 
Central Asia’s mountains seems to have been the first event of Quaternary time, 
as its completion marks the advent of the glacial period. Streams cut down, 
deep-gashing the old topography; the Markan Su evidently developed its gorge 
back where Kara Kul is now. They had apparently graded and begun to widen 
their valleys, when everything on the high Pamir was interrupted by the glacial 
period. Elsewhere dissection has nearly obliterated the old topography, but on 
the northern Pamir it never got beyond the early stage of a system of gorges 
perhaps from 1,000 to 3,000 feet deep, with wide intervening areas left intact. 

It is quite possible that, as Professor Davis suggests, the first epoch expansions 
of which we find such immense moraines were ushered in by a series of one, two, 
three, or more epochs of increasing magnitude, though all smaller than that great 
one by which they might have been obliterated. However complex may have 
been the transition to this maximum expansion, it seems unlikely that we shall 
ever know of them in this region, for even its moraines have lost all trace of their 
topography and_are recognized only by their structure of mixed-up till with huge 
sub-angular bowlders and occasional striated fragments. ji 

During this great ice-epoch, which for our purposes may be named the first, 
the mountains around Kara Kul and the Trans-Alai, and I suppose all high areas 
of Pamir, were wholly mantled with ice comparable to small continental ice-caps 
of whose marginal moraines there still remain masses over 1,000 feet thick. When 
at length these widespread glaciers withered, deep gorges were left choked with 
“till” and the Northern Pamir thus isolated into basins and blocked around into 
a zone of held-up detritus. And though we may suppose that in succeeding 
glacial epochs some detritus may have escaped even from Kara Kul, the aridity 
of interglacial times, if at all comparable to the present, could not allow of trans- 
portation from there by water. 

The Northern Pamir is thus characterized by a persistence of old topography. 
In its colossal isolation from moisture-bearing storms and with its glacier-made 
obstructions to stream erosion, it has stood in shape scarce altered through a 
period of geologic time; it has defied change while lands all around have suffered 
fast development of gorges, fast erosion of the old (first-cycle) topography which 
now remains elsewhere only on mountain tops and high spurs flanking them. Only 
the wind can succeed in getting much of anything out of the region. Otherwise, 
no débris can have been transported far since the first glacial epoch, excepting 
that shifted a few miles by glaciers and increasing the obstruction to subsequent 
erosion. Even part of the Alai valley and the first 20 miles of the Markan Su 
are no deeper than during the first ice-epoch. ‘Thus one of the world’s highest 
mountain regions was given long ago a shape so nearly dead to change that it 


DESERTS. 255 


has stood from early glacial time till now with one fixed expression of rock features, 
sun-crumbled and wind-worn. 

It seems possible that when the ice of that first expansion had so far melted 
that the moraine-blocked depression it left, where Kara Kul is now, was free of 
glacier ice, the lake thus created may have risen to the older terraces 320 feet 
above its present surface. But they are so much rounded off and altered by 
erosion that it would not be safe to say definitely that the lake ever stood at that 
level. ) 

A following interglacial epoch was of such long duration that the first-epoch 
moraine had lost its old topography, was gashed by wide valleys, and in the lake 
depression lay buried by lake clays when glaciers of the next expansion pushed 
down upon them in places, where piled-up and distorted layers may still be seen 
in front of overriding moraine. 


end Of Sia Cie. 


sere ea Ss 
com, @>, 300 yards to half 
WY ROCoeR 
& SSD burfed moraine 





Present stream 


iw. 
Cl] Z, LY 


= 





Seo a 
—Glaciers1ce- 
See ene ie 


Ps 
Bluff - section A 





am A and B= glacier ice 


renerecesects®, 
Bed-rock Firstepoch Secondandthird Fourthepoch Glacier ice mmr Bluff shores upto 20feet high 
moraine epochs moraines moraine 
Fig. 434.—Glacier of the Kara-at and a Section of its Valley 1.5 miles Fig. 435.—A Pool where Kara Kul Sediments have caved in 
below (Kara Kul). over Melting Lobes of Glacier Ice. 


The general limits of ice in the second epoch are sufficiently traceable to 
indicate a remarkable difference of outline between it and the first. It may be 
doubted if much, if any, of the region of Kara Kul was free from ice during the 
first epoch’s maximum expansion. A snow-line 3,000 feet lower than its present 
would cover all the Northern Pamir with ice. During the second epoch mountains 
around Kara Kul were mantled with ice apparently reaching about 1,000 feet 
lower than their present ice-dome margins; and from this extended valley-flows 
through gorges cut in massive moraine heaped along the mountain flanks during 
the first epoch. Reaching the plain they spread out as coalescing fans, which in 
some way or other became buried by lake clays. 

There appears to be no doubt of the glacial origin of these lake clays, as they 
are characteristic of glacial grinding, light gray or non-oxidized, with flakes of 
mica and layers containing small angular fragments. ‘They are finely laminated 
and cover a wide area east of the lake. A large proportion lie horizontal, as 


256 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 

shown in sections of deflation, but there are significant fan-shaped areas of much- 
disturbed stratification spreading out from the main valleys. Within these, the 
surface is broken into irregularly distributed mounds where wind-carving has 
exposed an arched structure, conformable to the original surface. Among them 
are miniature lakes of clear, fresh water, up to a few hundred yards in width and 
10 to 20 feet below the plain, their walls extending vertically into the water. 

All these facts, together with the utter lack of external hydrographic relations, 
led Professor Pumpelly to suggest their origin to be a caving-in of sediments 
on to underlying lobes of melting ice. And that seemed a logical explanation of 
the whole disturbance. It was corroborated in 1904 by my discovery of actual 
exposures of that ice, sections of ancient buried lobes in the bluffs around some 
of these pools; characteristic glacier ice lying beneath 5 to ro feet of lake sediments 





Fig. 436.—An Ice Dome, and its Third and Fourth Epoch Moraines in the foreground 
(Kara Kul). 


where exposed. At first it may seem too extraordinary that the ice of an ancient 
glacial epoch should exist to-day, but, when realizing that the temperature over © 
these steppes falls to 10° and 12° F. at night during the warmest part of the sum- 
mer, it appears more natural. We shall have to attribute it to the second of our 
glacial epochs, having found it towards the limits of that expansion and 7 miles 
from the end of the glacier to-day. 

So in some way or other Kara Kul rose to drown the piedmont sheets of 
ice-and bury them with its sediments of glacier-ground stuff. The corresponding 
shore-lines are on the peninsula well-preserved beaches of wave-action 200 feet 
above the present level. The open water for wave-action and sedimentation of 
glacier-ground stuff, together with vegetable life—grass like the present—all this 
during the second glacial epoch is of great significance. We must believe it 


DESERTS. 257 


was a period of heavy precipitation, but no colder than now, Otherwise, no lake 
could have existed, for even now it is frozen nine months out of twelve. We 
have to face a climate as warm, if not warmer than now, and ascribe the greater 
ice accumulation to more snowfall. Indeed, it appears unlikely that any moisture 
to speak of could reach a region so isolated by range beyond range of the world’s 
highest mountains, if the climate were much colder. On the other hand, there 
would probably be more precipitation now if it were warmer, and it would have 
to be a great deal warmer to raise the effect of melting seriously. An ordinary 
temperature of 10° F. in midsummer nights on the lake-shore means a very low 
average for higher portions. 

It is sometimes difficult to separate moraines of the third epoch from those 
of the second, whose higher portions they overlie. Those on the east barely 
reached the plain and did not quite fill the second-epoch gorges in the first-epoch 
moraine, but must have lasted nearly as long as the second, for their moraines 








Fig. 437.—A Glacier Northeast of Kara Kul. 


reach a great thickness. During this epoch the lake appears to have stood at the 
120-foot level, and these beaches are worn fully as long as those of the second 
epoch. ‘The third epoch, therefore, appears to have lasted for the same order of 
time as the second, though its glaciers were only half as long. In fig. 436, the 
fourth-epoch moraine is seen as a mass of loosely piled angular blocks overlying 
the third-epoch moraine of which the smooth surface forms the base of the picture. 

Long after these three had come to a close, there came a fourth advance to 
about one-half the distance of the third, but of far less than half the same duration, 
for its moraines are insignificant when compared to them. And this one came to 
a close so recently that its moraines have suffered scarcely any surface weathering, 
whereas those of preceding epochs have been much worn by wind; even the third 
one can be ridden over, while granite moraines of the first epoch have been smooth- 
planed into mosaic floors, the interspaces filled with the arkose residuum of long 


258 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


time. One can ride all day over the old ones, but no horse dares set foot on the 
loose blocks of the recent fourth-epoch moraines. ‘The very fresh beaches from 
60 feet down to the present lake level might be coupled with this last advance. 
All the Kara Kul glaciers of to-day lie in part on moraine, over which they 
have advanced from some more contracted stage, and they all terminate with a 
vertical or overhanging ice-cliff, from which large cakes of ice break off from time 
to time. I am inclined to think that their overhanging termini indicate that they 
are at present advancing. Most of them are mere valley tappings or tongue- 
shaped flows from high ice-fields, smooth-mantling the old worn-down granite 
mountains. Nowhere has nature been more graceful than in the making of these 
ice-fields, with high domes and troughs, and winding flows, all glare and clean and 
coalescing into the meandering striae and cross-ribbing of more rapid motion where - 
they are drained by valley glaciers. In this region there is no true snow-field, such 
as in the Alps. At no time did I find more than the 1 or 2 inches of snow of some 
recent fall, and under that was glare ice. Climbing on the domes is for the most 
part from step to step, while, with gun and camera, one balances and chops. When 
considering the power of solar rays felt directly through an arid atmosphere of 
16,000 to 20,000 feet elevation, we understand why snow changes so rapidly that 
in a few days after storms all is transformed to a crust of ice that coalesces with the 
underlying dome. Another remarkable feature of these mantles is the utter lack of 
surface débris over their clean, white expanse. This must be attributed to the 
gentle slopes of their underlying topography, none of which can rise above to shed 
débris. We shall have more to say about that topography. ‘Their expansions 
during the older epochs were, as stated, somewhat similar to that of a continental 
ice-sheet and resulted in widespread accumulations of moraine now characterizing 
the slopes of all high mountains around the basin. 
Obviously no reconstruction of past events in the Northern Pamir can be 
undertaken without data from without its zone of held-up detritus; for, to decipher 
its orogeny, we must study its surroundings of erosive activity, where terraces 
of rejuvenated valleys fall under distinct erosion cycles -belonging to periodic 
uplifts, and, where these valleys debouch, look for marginal deformations of the 
flanking piedmont zones. Everywhere beyond the borders of the Pamir’s rela- 
tively dead topography deep gorges and canyons, torrential valley systems, and 
sharp land forms are met with. Already the Markan Su has cut through the 
last tributary moraines that blocked its course, and below them changes into a 
corrading stream. The Pamir’s old preglacial topography is only 500 feet above 
the stream at the junction of its headwaters of Kizil Kul, but diverges rapidly 
with the stream to several thousand feet above only 60 miles eastward, where only 
the flat backs of mountains and massive spursof soft red strata flanking the Trans- 
Alai remain of the ancient continuities of gentle slopes and inflected surface. 
This is in general the state of valley systems developed into border ranges 
of the Pamirs. My studies of several of these valleys (Kizil Su west, Kizil-Art 
Darya, Markan Su, Kizil Su east, Taldic Darya, and Zerafshan) follow under the 


headings Alai Valley, Karategin and Hissar, Zerafshan, Tarim Basin, and Fergana 
Basin. 


DESERTS. 259 


In order to close our section on the Pamir with a tentative reconstruction 
of its Quaternary history, we may, in prevision, assume a subdivision into erosion 
cycles justified by these valleys. 


TENTATIVE RECONSTRUCTION OF QUATERNARY SEQUENCE OF EVENTS. 


First cycle (Pliocene). 

Pliocene mountains with the present Aralo-Caspian and Gobi basins defined in a 
general way. Erosion to low relief of Central Asia’s peneplain and piedmont 
stage. Remnant ridges still rising out of Pamir’s worn-down topography of 
rolling uplands. 

Second cycle (Quaternary). 

High uplift of mountains. 

Deep gashing of old Pliocene topography. 

Expansion of first epoch of glacial period with alluviation of valleys. 

Recession of first epoch of glacial period, leaving transportation in the Northern Pamir 
blocked around by moraines and its valleys converted into lake basins. 

Third cycle (Quaternary). 

Uplift (block-tilting of Alai). 

Narrower gorges incised in second-cycle flood-plains of lower valleys, but Pamir still 
isolated with second-cycle topography intact. 

Expansion of ‘second epoch of glacial period; lake Kara Kul filled to about 200 feet 
above present shores; alluviation of valleys of border ranges. 

Recession of second epoch, shrinkage of lakes, but plains aggrade back into valleys 
bearing old moraines. 

Fourth cycle (Postglacial). 

Uplift, warping, etc. 

Narrower gorges incised in third-cycle flood-plains of border ranges, but Pamir’s 
second-cycle topography intact. 


THE ALAI VALLEY AS A BASIN. 
A DISTINCT TYPE OF VALLEY. 


In passing north, east, or west off the high central mass of Pamir, we encounter 
a remarkable type of valley—a wide basin-like trough contained, often nearly 
inclosed, by longitudinal ranges and floored with a steppe of gently sweeping con- 
cavity. This is a type well exampled by the Alai valley and Keyak Bashi and 
common throughout the highlands of Asia, giving rise to their most fertile pastures. 
On a large scale it resembles the basins of Pamir, but differs from them because 
of lower elevation. The origin of these valleys may lie far back in Pliocene time, 
as a result of migration of the zone of piedmont upheavals, periodic encroachments 
of mountains on plains through successive upheavals parallel to the primal high- 
lands. As their streams average about 10,000 feet in elevation, they are within 
the zone of held-up detritus and have the aspect of deeply filled troughs. 

The Alai valley—the high eastern catch-basin of the Kizil 5u (the first great 
branch of the Oxus)—is a long, broad, east-west depression between the Pamir’s 
northern border ranges or Alai and Trans-Alai Mountains. As a basin, it is 110 
miles long from the Taun Murun divide to its canyon outlet at Katta Kara Muk 
and attains a width of 30 miles from crest to crest of its inclosing ranges. The 


260 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


even steppe resulting from its deeply filled state has a width of 15 miles for a dis- 
tance of 75 miles. Less isolated from moisture than the higher Pamir, it receives 
sufficient precipitation to form one of the most luxuriant pastures of Asia. 

In the higher Alai valley there are but two seasons—winter and spring. For 
nearly ten months of the year it lies deep-buried in snow, a vast expanse of white 
from range to range. ‘Then no man lives upon the plain and its gray wolf-packs 
are free to hunt the wild sheep and wandering ibex. By July the snow has melted 
and like magic the grass turns green; a myriad of marmots leave their holes to 
visit one another in the warm sunlight, uttering their shrill notes of warning when 
the caravans come down. A thousand Kirghiz families descend from the passes 
round about, with their long camel trains caparisoned and rich-laden with nomadic 
wealth, and each caravan with its flocks of sheep and goats, herds of camels and 
cattle and horses, proceeds to its traditional camping-ground. For a while it 
is all life and merriment in a world of grass and wild flowers, a wonderful valley 
of green with poppies and buttercups and peopled by men and animals, with here 
and there a group of round felt-domed kibitkas; a land whereover days of mist 
give way to skies of blue purity. But through it all the mountains stand colossal 
and cold, reminders of soon-coming snow, and from their ice-domes, 15,000 to 





Fig. 438.—Springtime in the Alai Valley. 


23,000 feet in height, it creeps fast down upon the grass. Ere spring has finished 
bloom, winter has come and the valley is left frozen in snowbound emptiness. 

But, though it is a remarkably rich pasture, there is scarcely rain enough— 
too little over the western or lower part. It is to the shortness of summer and 
relatively heavy snow of winter that the richness of its grass steppes must be 
attributed. There is enough water from melted snow in the ground to keep things 
fresh with the occasional help of mountain mists; enough in the upper half and 
all is full green there when winter falls to bury it, but in the lower half, the sun 
dries out all the water and leaves a plain of parched grass. 

The Alai valley is thus a semi-arid type of desert basin. Of all the basins 
to be considered by us, it is unique in that it yields four of the deposition zones, 
so interwoven and interlapping that alluvium, moraine, and loess are found one 
over the other, and correlation becomes relatively easy. Kettle-hole pools are 
found on its widespread moraines, but they do not belong, organically speaking, 
in the lacustrian division of a desert basin: so that the lacustrian zone is here 
lacking. But the alluvial, flying sands, loess, and glacial zones are all especially 
well represented. Its nuclei of dunes, though small, are not very disproportion- 


DESERTS. 261 


ately so, and become of great interest as a demonstration of the origin of such 
nuclei in greater basins. Its wide gravel-plains sloping from the Trans-Alai are 
strewn here and there with dunes and other areas of loess, while in the lower half 
of the valley there are sand nuclei several miles in length. Several feet of loess 
have accumulated over its old moraines and along the lower slopes of its border 
ranges. 

GLACIOLOGY AND EVIDENCES OF MOUNTAIN MOVEMENT. 

The glaciology was described in my first report. The same oscillations and 
the same greater advances and recessions took place here as in the Kara Kul basin. 
During the two first epochs much of the valley steppe was occupied by wide pied- 
mont ice-flows extending all the way across it from the Trans-Alai. Moraines 
laid down during the first have lost all topographical characteristics and their 
worn-down surfaces now form broad, low, transverse undulations of the valley 
floor and massive foothills of the Trans-Alai. Those laid down during the second 





Fig. 439.—Kirghiz making Felt in the Alai Valley 


epoch are now spread in the form of broad lobes covering immense areas and made 
up of vast numbers of conical mounds. In one remarkable instance, a second- 
epoch glacier spread all the way across the valley, piling up the slope of its northern 
side, just west of the Kashka Su. Through this moraine the Kizil Su has cut a 
channel, exposing a section of till resting on alluvium barely above the level of 
the stream. This section is of especial importance, for it is clear proof that the 
Kizil Su flood-plain was at about the same level there during the second glacial 
epoch as it is to-day, and that terraces, which leave the flood-plain about half- 
way down the valley and attain a height of 300 feet near its outlet, belong to 
some earlier age. 

On a visit to the glacier of the Tokuz Kungei, one of the greater Trans-Alai 
tributaries to this valley, some ideas were formed about the third and fourth 
epochs and their relations to the older. This glacier still terminates piedmont 
fashion, deploying—over a massive accumulation of moraine filling the mouth 


262 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 





of its mountain valley—as a flat sheet of clear ice, perhaps over half a mile wide 
and roo feet thick. Its waters discharge into a valley over 1,000 feet deep with 
an estimated width of three-quarters of a mile. This valley is excavated entirely 
in moraine composed, for the most part, of huge subangular blocks with glacial 
strie, and belonging to the first epoch, as it has lost all topographical character- 
istics, having been graded with a surface sloping towards the middle of the Alai 
and gashed by this great tributary valley. In this valley of discharge there are 
two terrace levels bearing kettle-holed moraines, and a less definite third terrace 
below. These, it would seem, belong respectively to the second, third, and indefi- 
nite fourth epochs. From out of the valley of discharge its second-epoch moraine 
spreads clear across the Alai with broad lobes, each composed of conical heaps 
100 to 300 feet high. Between the first and second epochs, time enough elapsed 
for the excavation of this wide valley of discharge to within 200 or 300 feet of 
its present depth. 





a 


Fig. 440.—The Tokuz Kungei Glacier (Alai Valley). 


As a severe buran (snow blizzard) blew up and darkened the region, I was 
unable to complete my observations on the third and fourth epochs, but it is a 
locality worthy of careful exploration. 

The glaciers of to-day are of a different character from those about Kara Kul, 
To begin with, the snow-line on this side of the Trans-Alai is only about 13,000 
feet, and we find true snow-fields—that feature for which the mountains of Kara 
Kul are so remarkably in want. There the snow turns to ice as fast as it comes 
down; but on this side there is more of it and a less arid sun to transform it. “Two 
of the present glaciers studied might almost be called piedmont flows. They 
descend with a steep grade and spread out fan-shaped upon massive accumulations 
of moraine, in part at least belonging to the third epoch (a mass that must be from 
1,000 to 2,000 feet in thickness), and spread upon the flat floors they have planed 
over these old moraines, to terminate in wide sheets of pinnacled ice, possibly 
less than 100 feet in thickness. And these glaciers, like those of Kara Kul, are 


DESERTS. 263 


remarkably free from surface moraine; and for the same reason, viz, that the 
mountains above are almost wholly mantled with ice. We must believe that the 
old epoch moraines, in spite of their immensity, were accumulated and brought 
forward under the ice and by its margins. 

In my report of 1903 it was shown that considerable mountain movement 
took place apparently between the first and second glacial epochs. The northern 
flank of the Trans-Alai is truncated by what appears to be a fault-scarp, displacing 
the first-epoch moraines and broad-trough valleys and dissected by the narrower 
trough valleys of later glaciation. The Kizil Art valley, principal Trans-Alai 
tributary, has the twice-troughed form due to uplift, from its heading cirque 
nearly to its mouth in the Alai; there the bottom of its lower trough sinks under 
the flood-plain of later alluviation, half-drowning the great second-epoch moraine 
that rises at the mouth of the valley to stretch 10 miles out into the Alai. 


—— 


/ 





Fig. 441.—Alluvial Terraces in the Lower End of the Alai Valley. 


Portions of its second-epoch moraine lie apparently faulted up on the terraces 
of its upper, broad-trough stage. Half-way down the Alai there is an uptilted 
mass of alluvium jutting out from its northern side as though more complicated 
deformation took place. In the eastern half of the valley tributaries from the 
north are deeply drowned in alluvium, as contrasted with those from the south, 
uplifted Trans-Alai, which have been canyoned postglacially. Terraces begin 
to flank the Kizil Su toward the outlet of the valley; and of these the higher are, 
as shown above, the result of cutting down since the first glacial epoch, while the 
lower appear to have been since the second. By early explorers these were taken 
for shores of an ancient lake; but they incline gently downstream, diverging some- 
what above it, ascend into tributary valleys from the north as characteristic 
alluvial terraces, and in no way resemble those of a lake. It is, therefore, obvious 
that the Alai valley has suffered two distinct periods of mountain movement— 


264 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


one between the first and second glacial epochs, another after the second glacial 
epoch. ‘The first movement appears to have given a relative uplift to the southern 
range, the second to have been an uplift of the whole valley, raising its western 
end at least 200 feet, probably several times that amount, and causing its outlet 
to cut down a narrow canyon. The Kizil Su is still corrading there rapidly on 
rock bottom. 

The first movement, it was shown, might be explained as a transverse block- 
tilt of the valley plain with the Alai Mountains north, on a dislocation along the 
Trans-Alai scarp; and one north of the Alai Mountains tilting the Alai valley 
down while the mountains north of the rotation axis were raised (see plate 63). 
This might have resulted because of the heavy load of moraines and alluvium piled 
in the Alai valley during the first epoch. Then, if the whole block was set in motion, 
it necessarily sank down on the Alai valley side, while its northern side was raised 
by displacement from the sinking Fergana plains. If the Alai valley had been 
larger, it probably would have gone through an independent set of movements; 
but, being a basin of small dimensions, it appears to have acted as a dead weight, 
an increasing load against surrounding mountain movements. 

There appears to have been some deviation from this general geodynamic 
scheme. Midway between the two ends of the valley and by the northern edge 
of its steppe the Kizil Su is truncating a low spur composed of displaced Alai 
valley alluvial gravels with a slight dip diagonally to the valley axis. This local 
departure merely indicates that though the Alai Range probably moved as a whole 
it was at the same time (or perhaps afterwards) more or less broken up. 


TENTATIVE RECONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS IN THE ALAI VALLEY. 


First cycle (Pliocene). 
Uncertain as to whether the valley was defined. 


Second cycle (Quaternary). 
Uplift of Pamir with differential block uplift of border ranges. 
Alai valley defined. 
Expansion of first-epoch glaciers, and piedmont ice-flows from the Trans-Alai reach 
all the way across the valley. 


Third cycle (Quaternary). 
Transverse tilting-down of the Alai Mountains and Alai valley with dislocation along 
the northern base of the Trans-Alai. 
Expansion of second-epoch glaciers and deepening of glacial valleys with troughs 
narrower than those of the first. 


Fourth cycle (Postglacial). 


Uplift of whole region. 

Cutting-down in the lower half of the valley. 

Loess and sand-dunes now accumulating. 

Glaciers have recently (probably during the last few hundred or a thousand years) 
receded between 200 and 300 feet. 


DESERTS. 265 


KARATEGIN AND HISSAR. 


The highlands of northeastern Bokhara are portioned between Karategin 
and Hissar, two remote provinces still surviving as feudal tributaries of the ancient 
khanate. Ethnographically, this is a region of high valley oases similar to those 
of the Zerafshan, remarkably isolated, and preservative of a distinct type of man, 
the Galcha, still speaking a relatively pure Aryan dialect—rare survivals of a 
primitive sedentary stock, elsewhere diluted or exterminated by the nomads. 
Physiographically, it is an important portion of the Oxus drainage system, which, 
in Quaternary time alone, has enacted a series of both hydrographic and topo- 
graphic changes of astounding magnitude. 








a 


Fig. 442.—The Kizil Su where it leaves the Alai Valley. 


KARATEGIN AS SHAPED BY THE KIZIL SU. 


The Kizil Su now follows a course of three physiographic divisions: (1) The 
Alai valley, (2) the valley of Karategin (Katta Kara Muk to Obu-garm), (3) 
the Vaksh valley (Obu-garm to the Oxus). We have studied the Alai valley 
as a basin, and as a whole it is a basin from which but a small proportion of the 
materials of its Quaternary erosion can have escaped; but in the western half 
there begin alluvial terraces flanking the Kizil Su flood-plain and gaining height 
toward the outlet. At a point 12 miles east of Katta Kara Muk, the old floor 
narrows rather abruptly from a width of 8 miles to about 1 mile and the valley 
becomes of normal aspect. And at Katta Kara Muk, where the true outlet canyon 
begins, there are three terrace-levels, respectively 70, 100, 200, and 300 feet above 
stream and continuing up the tributaries. There can be no question as to their 


266 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND_OASES. 


alluvial origin, as they slope with the stream at a rate of over 30 feet per mile 
and continue up its tributaries, and on the Trans-Alai side are composed of trun- 
cated fans sloping from high up in the mountains. 

When the river flowed at its highest or 300-foot terrace-level (first glacial 
and part of first interglacial epoch), its wide valley-floor was continuous into 
Karategin. The 200-foot terraces are also continuous, forming a narrower stage, 
while the present outlet gorge, into which the river plunges in a torrent state, 
is carved in the 200-foot floor. This narrow gorge is cut in the strike of a south- 
easterly dipping series (hard limestone on the north, soft gypsiferous beds on the 
south) and continues for 15 miles, whereupon the valley opens out and its terraces 
widen into the broad grade-plains of Karategin. 





Fig. 443.—A Galcha Beg of Karategin with his Hunting Eagle. 


The Kizil Su valley of Karategin is, in a general way, 25 miles wide and over 
a mile deep, as measured from the lower passes of its border ranges—a valley on 
the large scale characteristic of the highlands of Asia. Flanking it on the north 
is a branch of the Alai, on the south the Peter-the-Great Range, whose giant 
ice-clad peaks stand 10,000 feet above the oases scattered along the terraces and 
grade plains of its ancient valley-floors. The southwestern half lies open to a 
scanty precipitation of moisture from storms born up the Oxus embayment to 
nourish a moderate pasture over the grade-plains and flanking mountains below 
their snow. And there even grain is raised in fields patching the high slopes, 
with no irrigation; but the eastern half of the valley is barren of vegetation, a 
desolate land of sharp red and gray or black declivities rising from the dazzling 
gravel-plain of its ‘“braided’’ stream. There the higher peaks of the Peter-the- 
Great Range are less often seen mantled with clouds than as naked pyramids 
of white outlined against an arid blue. Karategin is essentially desert. 


DESERTS. 267 


Physiographically, the great features of this spacious valley arise from its 
ancient terraces and grade-plains. In general, there are three past erosion stages 
represented and these with the present river channel make four erosion cycles. 
But for over 30 miles, midway between Obu-garm and Katta Kara Muk, the 
third and fourth stages merge into one; or rather the third-cycle flood-plain warps 
under present alluviation and the river spreads out with no channel. Often 
the second-stage terrace is found obliterated and the valley becomes a simple 
wide gorge with tributaries cut into the old topography of its first stage, the pene- 
plain stage of these regions. 










gee ee SO ee 


Ist cycle 
Grade plains flanking 


Limestone 
the Peter The Great mts. 








SECTION THREE MILES BELOW THE ALAI VALLEY. 


29 cycle terrace 


J 
| 
Pe and 4th cycles (Present flood plain) ase Yi} 


FIVE MILE SECTION NEAR HAUI. 








1st cycle 1St cycle 
Y Y 
> 


2nd cycle 


//j 





5 4theycle x= 


TYPE FIVE MILE SECTION WHERE THIRD CYCLE FLOOD-PLAIN IS NOT WARPED UNDER THE PRESENT FLOOD-PLAIN-~ 


Fig. 444.—Terraces of the Kizil Su in Karategin. 


As the first-stage topography has been uplifted and dissected by this great 
gorge and all its tributary systems to a depth of from 3,000 to 4,000 feet, only 
limited areas of its original slopes now remain. It is to be inferred from a con- 
formity of grade-plains and flat-topped spurs flanking the Peter-the-Great Range 
and dissected remnants of a one-time half-peneplained belt of the Alai Mountains 
north. When uplift began, it was by no means a peneplain, but rather a mature 
topography grading into the wide, shallow valley of the Kizil Su and peaked here 


268 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN- DESERTS AND OASES. 


and there with low monadnocks and bordered by the Alai and Peter-the-Great 
Range. But to attain even that stage of maturity in the heart of a great moun- 
tain region; to erode what in Pliocene time must have been a region of colossal 
ranges to its metamorphic cores, must have taken vastly longer than all three suc- 
ceeding cycles of erosion taken together. The sum total of these later cycles has 
resulted in no more than an immature dissection of the ancient topography, 
and, though for our purpose they should be termed erosion cycles, they are by 
no means comparable to that which closed the Pliocene and should be regarded as 
mere phases of a Quaternary striving towards base-level. We shall find corre- 
sponding phases of Quaternary erosion over other regions and term them cycles 
for the sake of a tentative correlation. 





Fig. 445.—A Bridge over the Third-cycle Terrace in Karategin. 


Terraces of the second stage lie about half-way up the valley sides, but are 
found only at rare intervals, usually where tributaries join, and badly preserved 
because the third-stage valley-floor has widened to nearly obliterate the transition. 
But those of the third stage are in remarkable preservation and form the great 
feature of Karategin, the spacious plains and gentle slopes of its oases. Broadly 
speaking, it gives a concave sweep to the valley bottom, for the most part 4 miles 
across and traversed by the present river channel, about half a mile wide, of rec- 
tangular section, varying up to nearly 300 feet in depth. 

At Damburachi (junction with the Muk Su), this stage widens into a trian- 
gular junction-terrace* of over 30 square miles area, traversed by abandoned 
distributary channels of the Muk Su between 200 and 300 feet above stream. Two 





*A terrace in the angle or junction-spur where two rivers join. I venture to offer ‘‘junction-terrace”’ 
and ‘‘junction-spur” as terms I have found essential. 


DESERTS. 269 


or 3 miles below Damburachi the river flows through a narrow cut, skirting the 
north side of the valley, while the lower terrace rises as a plateau on the south 
with an old channel of the Kizil Su on it. Below there it converges with the present 
flood-plain and just below Pildona, 6 miles above Hawee, it sinks under. From 
there on nearly to Garm, it lies buried in the present flood-plain and the river at 
high water swings against the valley sides it scoured during the third erosion cycle. 
Just above Garm the lower terrace rises out again and the river enters a channel 
that deepens steadily to Obu-garm, the westernmost point of observation, where 
this terrace is about 300 feet high as cut into by the present channel, that of 
our fourth erosion cycle. 

In defining the third stage we inevitably defined the fourth, the channel of 
to-day. But some important facts should yet be noted. The present channel 
is cut in alluvial gravels all the way, excepting for occasional glimpses of bed-rock 
bottom. Obviously, then, the stream had cut down as far as it is now during the 
third erosion cycle, which, 
however, closed with a re- 
filling and valley-widening 
to the third stage. The 
earth-movements which 
wrought its fourth and last 
erosion cycle were of sucha 
nature that about 35 miles 
of the valley, that portion 
between Garmand Pildona, 
was negatively affected, 
that is, aggraded instead of 
corraded. This would 
appear to indicate warping, 
and that idea is reinforced 
by observations on tribu- 
taries. Two large tributa- 
ries converge to Hawee, 
where they debouch in the Fig. 446.—A Galcha of Karategin. 

Kizil Su. One comes in 

from the west, the other from the north. If the great valley suffered a longi- 
tudinal warping, we should expect to find the one from the west rejuvenated, the 
one from the north aggrading in sympathy with the main river. This is precisely 
the condition at Hawee. One more important fact remains: the Kizil Su has 
not yet graded its fourth-cycle channel, excepting over the 35-mile stretch of 
relative depression. The present flood-plain is divided into several long stretches 
where the river splits into a braided stream. Between these the channel narrows 
into short shoots, where it plunges over sills of bed-rock. The fourth erosion 
cycle is, therefore, the result of a warped uplift still in process, or so recently 
completed that corrasion has not yet attained an even grade. 





270 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


GREAT FEATURES OF THE HISSAR VALLEY. 


Hissar becomes of interest because of the extraordinary hydrography of its 
great valley. Opposite ancient Bactra a 15-mile wide strip of steppe sweeps up 
from the Oxus embayment into this valley, continuing northward up the Surkhan 
River as far as Karatagh, then bending due east into the wide open valley of Hissar. 
This portion of the valley-floor averages 2,500 feet in elevation, and is distinguished 
for its utter lack of a trunk-stream. It is, on the other hand, crossed by three 
tributaries, the Kanaka, Dushambeh, and Kafirnigan, converging to near the 
city of Hissar, where they break through the southern side and flow to the Oxus. 

The valley has a mixed population, divided 
between Usbeg camps and Tadjik villages. 
Throughout the old khanate it is famed for 
its wealth of pasture and the grace of its 
horses. The streams descending from the 
mountains north are diverted to irrigate a 
wide continuity of rice and grain-fields, while 
the silk woven in Karatagh and Hissar is 
prized throughout the cities of Central Asia. 

Ten days were spent in attempting to 
decipher the remarkable physiography of the 
Hissar valley. The more open part of the 
valley east from Karatagh is about 40 miles 
long and floored by a grass plain with an 
average width of 5 miles, but of irregular 
definition. On the northern side this plain is 
often bounded by a loess cliff, surmounted by 
a narrow belt of steppe rising north. From 
this it inclines transversely or southwards on 
a grade of about 20 feet to the mile, and 
sweeps up again to meet the mature topog- 
raphy of the southern side. The loess cliff 
varies up to 100 feet in height, and running 
along the northern side of the main valley 
truncates tributary spurs and tributary valleys 
in one plain; but is interrupted by the broad 
flood-plains of larger tributary valleys dissecting it; in general, it runs east and 
west, sometimes perfectly straight for several miles; sometimes gives way to a 
dissected deformation of the plain, and has the appearance of a recent fault-scarp. 
From near Dushambeh it runs straight east for 8 miles, dissected by local streams 
at rare intervals. 

The Hissar valley is all loess, except where crossed by the gravel flood-plains 
of the three larger streams. These streams cross in wide channels, beginning with 
a depth of about roo feet, decreasing till near the southern side, where flood-plains 





Fig. 447.—A Swimmer of Rapids, with an Inflated 
Goat-skin (Karategin). 


DESERTS. a7 
merge into the great valley-floor. It is essentially a valley of deep loess accumu- 
lation, a grassy settling ground of dust blown up from the Kizil Kum. On the 


other hand, its great dust-beds undoubtedly alternate in depth with the flood- 


plain deposits of its cross-streams. Out of ten days, during seven there was a 





Fig. 449.—Silk Factory in Karategin. 


yellow haze, and of these days two were so gloomy that a few hundred yards was 
the range of vision. It is, therefore, a region of still living loess. The kurgans 


and burial mounds left by its more ancient inhabitants are now mantled with 2 
feet or more of loess. 


Diya PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


These questions arise: What is the explanation of this valley, of which a part 
has no trunk-stream? Was it ever a true river-valley? Is it the lower portion 
of a valley of which the head-waters have been captured by a higher branch of 
the Oxus? Was it possibly the valley of the Kizil Su, now captured at Obu-garm 
by the Vaksh River? 

East of the open plains the valley-floor has been uplifted and dissected by 
the Hyak Darya, which plays the part of a true trunk-stream for that portion. 
Following it up to about 18 miles above Faizabad, we find the channel made by 
this stream, at first deep with high terraces, decreases in depth and finally opens 
out onto the ancient valley-floor again. Here the floor is a sweeping concave 
about 3 miles wide between the mountain sides, with spacious tributary fans and 
talus cones, and there are no terraces. It stands at an elevation of 6,100 feet 
and forms a rich summer pasture, resorted to by Usbeg nomads. 

The remarkable fact about this floor is that it continues rising east beyond 
the heading tributaries of its stream, and we thus confront another portion of the 
valley with no trunk-stream. For 3 miles it is a wide grass plain with not even a 
tributary descending to its borders. Then, while it is still rising east, there begin 


Ss 





Fault scarp 





Fig. 450.—Cross-profile of the Hissar Valley. 


gully systems developed back into it from a stream which joins the Kizil Su near 
Obu-garm. These gullies join into a gorge deepening rapidly with terraces inclin- 
ing east, while the old floor above apparently still rises east. The gorge finally 
develops into a canyon 2,000 feet deep in hard limestone and softer rocks; then 
widens again at Obu-garm and debouches into the Kizil Su with a total depth of 
3,000 feet. 

The high-grade plains or first-stage terraces of the Kizil Su appear to have 
a height of about 3,000 feet at this point, and, if so, conform with the old uplifted 
floor of the Hissar valley. Here there is no doubt that the gorge of Obu-garm 
has captured the head of the Hissar valley. The valley at the divide is so broad 
that it must have been formed by a large stream. It is possible that the Kizil Su 
was that stream and that the mountain movements that first broke up the mature 
topography wrought this change in its course. 

In connection with the valley of Hissar it is important to know the valley 
form of its northern tributaries. One of these, the Sardai-miona, was briefly 
studied in descending from Kak Pass over the Hissar Mountains. For 40 miles 
it is a gorge over 2,000 feet deep, of which the last 25 miles narrows to a granite 


DESERTS. 278 


canyon with cliffs rising often 1,000 feet sheer and sometimes 500 feet overhanging. 
Its population in the more open portion, the first 15 miles, is divided between 
shepherds and villagers. There the valley sides rise 2,000 feet at an angle of 25° 
to 30°, but are luxuriantly clothed with grass. On terraces along the bottom 
are its villages of square huts with flat mud roofs and cobblestone walls cemented 
with clay. These are usually seen incased with cakes of dung fuel, piled carefully 
up against the walls or heaped in cones on the roof to dry. 

The granite gorge beginning about 15 miles below, though for the most part 
a canyon with sheer walls, widens out occasionally, especially where tributary 
valleys come in. Here we find villages of sloping thatched roofs, recalling those 
of Europe, and a variety of trees. The mountains above the granite walls are 
sparsely forested with scrubby cedars. Willow, sugar-maple, yellow birch, hickory, 
poplar, cedar, black elm, wild cherry, and wild plum grow along the bottom. 
It is an extraordinary fact that all excepting the cedar had a familiar aspect, 





Fig. 451.—Kak Pass over the Hissar Mountains. 


recalling similar varieties in America; and even more surprising was it to find 
true maple-sugar, made into flat cakes like ours. Their sugar-maples and yellow 
birches would pass for the rock-maples and yellow birches of New England. 

In its upper portion the Sardai-miona is a terraced valley. Terraces diverge 
from the flood-plain near its head and increase in height downstream till the 
granite canyon begins, and there they vanish to reappear about 8 miles below 
Romette, where the valley opens out again. There we find them of loess and 
loess-capped alluvium in bluffs rising over 100 feet above stream. Below Romette 
the mountains are mantled with loess and patched here and there with grain-fields, 
some of them on slopes too steep for a horse to plow, and the land has to be hoed. 
The crops are brought down on wooden sleds that slide easily down these steep 
slopes of smooth loess. All the hillsides are scarred by tracks running straight 
down, as the same ones are used year after year. On the plains of Hissar similar 
sleds are used, but drawn by oxen instead of descending by gravity. 


274 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


The Sardai-miona valley has no high terraces, no terraces comparable to those 
of Kizil Su. It is essentially a simple gorge, beginning with a V shape with low 
terraces at the bottom, then changing to a canyon and finally opening again to 
a V shape with low terraces at the bottom. These low terraces which mark its 
last transition undoubtedly resulted from the recent uplift which faulted up the 
northern side of the Hissar valley, breaking off the border of its floor with the 
scarp of loess. The river, which is of nearly clear water, as its region is of crys- 
talline and metamorphic schists, is a rapid and copious flow, but hardly a torrent. 
Its grade is fairly even, though at intervals it becomes more rapid and passes 
chutes. It may, therefore, be said that its last phase is still uncompleted. 

Any explanation of the Hissar valley must explain why the Kafirnigan 
with the other streams breaks through its southern side, instead of flowing east 
to join the Karatagh, thus continuing the valley to its proper outlet. It may 
be that the Hissar valley is not a valley, but no more than a belt of the Oxus 
embayment, shut off by uplift of the plain south, and that the Kafirnigan cut 
down as the mass rose. This is not likely, because the hills south of Hissar are by 
no means sharp in outline, but are, on the contrary, of mature form. It would 
seem that a regional tilt, raising the northern side with the Hissar Mountains, would 
account for the canyons of tributaries there and the cutting back of an Oxus 
tributary to capture the cross-streams at Hissar. The same process might account 
for cutting back of the Vaksh to capture the Kizil Su at Obu-garm, thus leaving 
the Hissar valley from there west without the great stream that belonged to it. 


TENTATIVE RECONSTRUCTION OF EROSION CYCLES IN KARATEGIN AND HISSAR. 


First cycle (Pliocene). 
Erosion of Pliocene mountains to low relief, while Kizil Su flows straight through the 
Alai valley, Karategin, and the valley of Hissar, and then south to the Oxus. 
Cycle closes with valley widening and a many-mile wide flood-plain continuous 
from the eastern end of the Alai valley to the Oxus embayment, a distance of 
nearly 500 miles. 


Second cycle (Quaternary). 

-High uplift; Hissar region tilted, raising north more than south. The Kizil Su cap- 
tured at Obu-garm, the valley of Hissar at Hissar; the Kizil Su deepens the western 
end of the Alai valley and canyons its valley in Karategin; the Sardai-miona 
develops its canyon cycle. 

Closes with the valley widening. 


Third cycle (Quaternary). 

High uplift. The Kizil Su deepens the western end of the Alai valley and canyons 
the second-cycle floor of Karategin to a depth of 2,000 to 3,500 feet below the 
first-cycle grade plains. Cycle closes with prolonged valley widening and glacial 
alluviation. Great accumulation of loess. 


Fourth cycle (Postglacial). 


Warped uplift of a few hundred feet. Faulting up of northern side of Hissar valley. 
Present channels incised in flood-plains of third-cycle alluviation. Now up to 
200 or 300 feet in depth and still cutting down. Loess still accumulating. 


DESERTS. 


i) 
“I 
on 


THE ZERAFSHAN VALLEY. 


On the Northern Pamir and in the Alai valley we found a good field for glaci- 
ology, and would, off-hand, expect to find record of corresponding climatic change 
on outlying ranges, nearby members of the Tian Shan. But although no such 
extreme difference as the variation of from one to six glacial epochs, found by 





Fig. 452.—Thatched Roofs in the Sardai-miona Gorge. 


Mr. Huntington, was met with on my journey, there was an unmistakable discord- 
ance between certain valleys. We hope to show that a differential glacial record 
was inevitable on mountains subjected to the differential uplift such as we find 
recorded by various degrees of block-faulting and tilting. With the Alai Moun- 
tains, we have a region that has ats 
been uplifted some thousands of i | 
feet, faulted on the north and bor- | 

dered there by rows of uptilted | 
piedmonts. It isa significant fact 
that Mr. Huntington found a uni- 
versal correspondence of variations 
inclimate (by attributing valley ter- 
races to climatic change) and yet 
no correspondence at all between 
vailey glaciers. Wecan not, how- 
ever, believe that the glaciers of 
Central Asia were independent of 
Central Asia’s climatic change. If 
it were merely a disagreement be- 
tween valleys of different elevation, 
between high valleys now occupied and low ones now glacier empty and between 
empty valleys of different height, the matter might be argued independent of 
uplift. But such is not the case. Out of twenty-four valleys scarcely any two 
of the same height agree; and there are instances of valleys near together and 
of the same height disagreeing several epochs. It will be understood that most 


= ee 





Fig. 453.—A Sled in the Hissar Valley. 


276 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


of Central Asia’s valley terraces have resulted from widespread cycles of uplift, 
in some parts locally interrupted, and that just such a variable glaciology would 
arise from a differential uplift. 


THE ZERAFSHAN AS A LONGITUDINAL VALLEY. 


The Zerafshan valley is perhaps the most valuable of longitudinal valleys 
for our purpose. Rising in the ice cave of its wonderful glacier, amid Alpine peaks 
up to 18,000 feet in height, at the forking of two westernmost members of the 
Tian Shan system, its river flows west for 150 miles as a thundering torrent, between 
the rock walls of its canyon carved in the bottom of a gorge several thousand 
feet in depth. Out of this it abruptly emerges onto the broad steppes, to nourish 
the great oasis of Samarkand and 
those bordering it for 200 miles, 
till the last of its waters filter away 
in the gardens and rice-fields of old 
Bokhara. Once it probably joined 
the Oxusand only about a thousand 
years ago filled the canals of Pai- 
kent, then the most powerful city 
of Central Asia, but now aban- 
doned to the desert dunes, from 
which project its ruined walls. As 
a longitudinal and structural valley 
that of the upper Zerafshan has 
responded to uplift differently from 
those carved transversely in up- 
lifted ranges. To begin with, it 
could not much feel any transverse 
tilting suchas so affected the Taldic 
valley to the east and, since it de- 
bouches from between the ends of 
two ranges where they die out and 
seem to have risen but little, it 
responded slowly up the 150 miles 
to its source. Moreover, there is more chance for a warp in a long valley than 
in ashort one. Lastly, the grade of such a long longitudinal valley is necessarily 
much less than that of transverse valleys heading at the same height on the 
same range. It therefore had more tendency to fill with the waste of glacial 
alluviation, especially during long interruptions of crustal movement when aggra- 
dation of the plains could raise the base-level back upstream, either case giving 
rise to massive terraces of alluvium after the cutting-down of a succeeding uplift. 

All the above distinctions are characteristic of the Zerafshan as well as the 
Kizil Su gorge of Karategin. In general, there seem to have been three cycles 
of erosion before the present, which makes a fourth, as the stream is now rapidly 
corrading. 





Fig. 454.—A Peak South of the Zerafshan Glacier. 


DESERTS. 277 


SECTION OF EROSION CYCLES. 
First cycle (Pliocene). 
High relief (Pliocene). 
Base leveled in part (the peneplain stage of Central Asia). 
Second cycle (Quaternary). 
Uplifted. 
Graded to G — 25 feet (first epoch of glacial period ?). 
Alluviation to G+ 500 feet. 
Third cycle (Quaternary). 
Warped uplift. 
Graded to G — 300 feet (extensive landslides). 
Alluviation to G — 100 feet (close of second epoch of glacial period). 
Aggraded to G (third and fourth epochs obliterated by present glacier). 
Fourth cycle (Quaternary). 
Warped uplift. 
Cut down to G — 300 feet. 
Still cutting down. (Present glacier and tributaries have made considerable advance 
in this cycle. During the present oscillation glacier has receded about 250 feet.) 


FIRST EROSION CYCLE. 


The vertical degree of cut and fill referred to G level, or the broad floor into 
which the canyon has cut, varies throughout the valley in such a way as to indicate 
warping. The values given are about average for the exaggerated portion of the 
valley, that from Urmitan to Oburdon. Of those far-reaching gradual slopes 
forming the 20-mile wide valley established by the close of the first cycle, but 
little now remains and must be looked for surmounting high spurs and whole 
mountains dissected from it between the present gorge and its two containing 
ranges. That uplift which ushered in the second cycle of erosion seems to have 
been especially great through this region and the rest of the Alai Mountains and, 
though probably contemporaneous with a general breaking up of our first cycle’s 
topography throughout Central Asia, may have been somewhat sooner here where 
comparatively little of the old topography has survived. The Kopet Dagh, on 
the other hand, appear to have lagged behind the general uplift, while the remark- 
able peneplain of the Bural-bas-tau in the Tian Shan, so well described by Pro- 
fessor Davis, may have risen still later. Indeed, it is unlikely that all ranges 
throughout a region so vast as Central Asia would rise simultaneously. If these 
uplifts, all secondary movements posterior to the birth of the mountains, were, 
as we suppose, connected with loading and consequent sinking of their adjacent 
plains, the mountains originally highest ought to have risen first. And this appears 
to have been the case, for the Pamir and its border ranges, the Trans-Alai, Alai, 
and those on its east were already deeply gashed with well-developed valley systems 
long before the first glacial epoch. 


SECOND EROSION CYCLE. 


The second cycle appears to have lasted a long time after its uplift had ceased, 
for during it the river widened its floor, which seems to have been somewhat below 
the surface of terrace G, till it was in places even wider than that terrace is now. 
Even after this, erosion continued till by aggradation of the plains the base-level 
had risen up into the valley, filling it toa depth of some 500 feet with waste. But 
probably this refilling was partly a glacial alluviation in the first glacial epoch. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


to 
NI 
oe) 


THIRD EROSION CYCLE. 


To us the third cycle is most interesting, as it overlaps the second glacial 
epoch and less time has elapsed to obliterate its records. As a result of its uplift, 
apparently warped, the river cut down through the alluvial fillings of the second 





Fig. 455.—Ice-cave of the Zerafshan, Looking from within. 





Fig. 456.—Terraces of the Zerafshan. 


cycle and into the old rock bottom to a depth of from 50 feet in the lower to 300 
feet in the mid-warp part of the valley with a canyon about as wide as the present 
and reaching about the same depth. Then the uplift appears to have stopped 


PLATE 62, 





Ss. Dy f/ Hi 
yy Px. Berg schrund vi Uf » 


Moraine Py 


==> River cave—_—— Glacier ice 


Re 
Q 













SS ——S ES OO —Eee oe —— 


E ZERAFSHAN GLACIER 












Cobble Plain 


MAIN VALLEY JUST BELOW THE GLACIER 


Village of Tro 


/ 
/ 
f 
7 


= 
Vertical and horizontal scale 


(0) 500 1000 1500 2000 feet 
~ 
“XN 
ss 
AT KODISHAR ’ \ 


G 


AT PACHURD 








ABOUT THREE MILES BELOW PACHURD 
G 


AT VARSEMINOR 







UD, 
Uy 





%s: TWO MILES BELOW VISHIST 
AT MINDONA 
Obu Siab 
Samarcand Pans Rice fields <—— Flood Plain of cobble stones elds 
MMM TTT am aU LAAARURLLRAT AN LLU ELLALAD Re rt a SR 
6000ft. ec 
Vertical and horizontal scale 
tala ceed fe) 1000 2000 + 3000feet 
tt 
LEGEND 
Cco0%S 02 “4 
oO S 3 
Seo5020 Moraine Loess Uy Slates 
OSES8GR Li 
' e PX VY, SY, 
Ailuvial conglomerates USA (limestones G (The Great Lower Terrace) is referred 
; LAP gs 4 
(Unconsolidated) WEES to as the 3rd.erosion cycle 


Twelve Cross-sections of the Zerafshan Valley. 


ha > 





DESERTS. 279 


short and the base-level aggraded back into the valley again, refilling it with waste. 
During this process, and when it had refilled to a height of about 250 feet some 
three-quarters of the way upstream, the second-epoch glacier advanced to 45 
miles below the present ice front. This ultimate point is near the oasis of Mad- 
rushkent. ‘There, in the face of a 300-foot deep canyon section, may be seen a 
thickness of some 20 feet of finely stratified light-gray clays, contrasting in lightness 
and texture with 20 feet of overlying and 200 feet of underlying coarse gravels. 
But the important feature is its distorted stratification, evidently having resulted 
from a pushing of the ice front, which also beveled the distorted layers with a sur- 
face declining upstream or against the river’s grade, the very thing to be expected 
under the frontal margin of an advancing valley glacier. At intervals for about 
20 miles above this point there are moraines scattered over terrace G standing 
half-buried in its alluvium, and in a tributary canyon section (see plate 62) oppo- 






Post glacial\ Fes=2== 
alluvium 
(cobbles) 





Thrusted alluvium 


Glacial_=> hfs : 
boulders (fine light gray clays) 


Thrust ———————_» West,down stream 


Fig. 457.—Section of Glacier-thrusted Alluvium in the Zerafshan Valley, 45 Miles 
below the Glacier. 


site Packshiff some of this moraine is seen standing on an irregular surface of allu- 
vium scraped over by ice and partly buried by later waste. So the second glacial 
epoch came to a close as the third-cycle gorge continued filling. While aggrading, 
the valley had widened and, ere the next uplift came, established the present 
terrace G. 

FOURTH EROSION CYCLE. 


Cycle 4, with the last uplift, has resulted in the present canyon, a channel 
incised from the last meander held by the river at stage G and thus crossing often 
the old-filled valley of the third cycle. And in its present torrential fall of nearly 
6,000 feet in 150 miles it must be rapidly cutting down. Indeed, the deep rumble 
and grinding of cobbles heard beneath the river’s roar is ample indication of 
corrasion. 

The Zerafshan glacier, with its ancient moraine, its relation to other glaciers 
and uplift, the fine grindings it has supplied to loess steppes, and its influence 
on civilization, becomes of great interest. Only one epoch of abandoned moraine 
could be distinguished, and that remarkably far-reaching and of such antiquity 
that it must be classed as belonging to the first or second of the glacial periods. I 
have attributed it to the second, because it still rises from terrace G in good pres- 
ervation. Nowhere has the first epoch moraine been seen with its topography 
preserved. Recently the glacier has advanced into a part of the valley that had 
been ice-free for so long that its sides had struck an even slope to the flood-plain 


280 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


and received a thick coat of loess mixed with talus. Directly in front both valley 
sides come down to the flood-plain in this fashion. ‘Time enough has elapsed for 
accumulation of huge deltas and gradual loess-mixed talus-cones, some of them 
truncated by the river, and the cutting-down of tributary once-hanging glacier 
valleys to sharp V-sections and canyons on a regular grade to the river since any 
time when the ice was farther forward than now. As an exception to this it may 
be said that the glacier is at present in the process of a minor oscillation that makes 
it about 200 feet short of a cross-ridge of moraine deposited probably some few 
years ago. 

Owing to the depth of its gorge and alpine character of surrounding mountains, 
the Zerafshan glacier, unlike those of the Trans-Alai and Pamir, is wholly covered 
with moraine longitudinally banded with the various colors of its different tribu- 
tary glaciers. But the most significant difference between it and those others 
lies in its being the only one that yielded no evidence of more than one expansion 
greater than the present. If the old moraine found half-buried in the alluvial 
terraces down to 45 miles below the present ice belongs, as seems most likely, 
to our second epoch, it is easy to understand how that of the first epoch was washed 





Fig. 458.—The Zerafshan Glacier. 


away by the river during the latter part of the second and early part of the third 
cycle of erosion. It is not so easy to understand how the fourth erosion cycle 
could have obliterated third- and fourth-epoch moraines without obliterating that 
of the second epoch. Indeed, it seems impossible under the conditions involved. 
There remain two alternatives: either local conditions were such that little if any 
expansions took place, or the present glacier is greater and obliterates them. But 
since the glacier is now less than 15 miles long, it seems necessary to assume that 
there were local reasons why no considerable advance corresponding to those of the 
third epoch of Trans-Alai and Pamir took place. It seems quite likely that our 
fourth-cycle uplift of the Zerafshan glacier and its surroundings took place after 
the third glacial epoch farther east, where glacial conditions may have been acceler- 
ated by uplift during or before that epoch. The Zerafshan is now much more 
actively cutting down than any other large stream met with, and its glacier is 
advancing* as though the uplift were still in process and accelerating glacial con- 
ditions also. 





* Excepting the minor oscillation of recent years. 


DESERTS. 281 


The Zerafshan River is one of the few black rivers of Central Asia. Most 
of them are red from the gypsiferous beds folded into all those ranges; oxidized 
sediments apparently deposited under arid conditions similar to the present. 
Its charge of black stuff comes from the black slates and shales around its glacier, 
from which fully two-thirds to half its water springs. One of the most striking 
facts about the river is the increase of volume up- instead of downstream, because 
after about two score miles from its source more water is lost by evaporation than 
is gained from tributaries. Therefore, most of its sediment is glacier-ground stuff 
directly from the ice-cave, the rest from tributary glacial streams taken in a few 


Berg - schrund 


——— N<—__—___—— 













Valley side—— 
of loess slope— 





Glacier ice 






covered with moraine 












eae Og 

eee NOE 

ee IL TO ag 7 Da. 

ae) | SY alee ar 

SS) VA Re ge 

SS Vqa0s7e vols 

ee VAG = edt ey iy S ~~ zs 

a Sy oa O° ¢=—,.**hy 7_—~ 

a ae NA aes r =2%y 7 eB °Go O5 CAs 

— aks Qep tte ilies Tie g 

—— =~ . Soae oy, B25 * 0% °9 

fea, ae aear \Q een 2 oP 35 A S9.2% N\ 7 
SN = 

Se ~o 2 Ose =2 09007288 

eases ae, WO CO ea SLES eo °S3 Ft 

= g. SSS ces \\\ 

——— Alluvial eee \ 


oy 
TTI, 


= cobble plain 





fo) Via, V2 mile 


Fig. 459.—Sketch-map of the End of the Zerafshan Glacier (R = Recession). 


miles below, and that from cutting-down of its channel. It may therefore be 
assumed that in total its deposits throughout glacial time till now are mostly of 
glacial origin, and that the loess derived from it was mostly fine stuff of glacial 
grinding. In fact, one may attribute a large part of Central Asia’s loess to wind- 
work over the flood-plains of glacial alluviation, especially those of earlier epochs. 

The loess steppe of Samarkand has been warped up into a dome about 40 
miles across and 1oo feet high in the middle and dissected by old distributaries 
and irrigation canals of the Zerafshan, some of which, notably the Dargum (fig. 461), 
cross and join again beyond. ‘The interesting structure thus exposed in clean sec- 
tions up to 100 feet in height reveals an interlapping of pure loess of vertical cleavage 


282 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


with stratified and cross-bedded alluvial grit (fig. 462). Upstream the proportion 
of alluvium and size of its fragments steadily increase, and about 30 miles above 
Samarkand the river is flanked by a con- 
glomerate cliff 50 feet high, with an over- 
lying coat of loess as well as some thinner 
beds of it lower down. Another fact of 
interest over that same distance is the grad- 
ual transition of color from yellow loess 
at Samarkand to light-gray loess there. 
Fig. 460.—Section near the End of the Yarkich Glacier. Since the flood-plain is necessarily much 
wider at Samarkand, dust has to drift about more there before coming to rest 
as loess and thus has more chance to oxidize. 





THE TARIM BASIN. 
EVIDENCES OF PERIPHERAL UPLIFTS. 


Passing to the Tarim, western basin of the Gobi, we find its border ranges 
gashed by gorges with high terraces. The Kizil Su gorge of Tarim and what was 
seen of its tributary topography is so remarkably similar to that of the Markan 
Su that one can not help drawing the conclusion that this type is persistent through 
that region. Uppermost in both we find the old graded-down topography and 
uplifted piedmont gravel-plains, while between this and the present flood-plain 
there are various terraces, badly preserved because of the gorge’s narrowness. 
There are also massive remnants of an alluvial conglomerate several hundred feet 
thick, recording a refilling that took place, a backing-up of waste into the graded 
widths established after the first uplift and before the second. The region of 
Aikart Pass, on the Markan Su route to Kashgar, is a massive piedmont formation 
of half-consolidated gravels from which project some remnant peaks of the under- 
lying highly-tilted red gypsiferous series. It appears to be a piedmont series, 
laid down during the long preglacial erosion that resulted in the old topography 
referred to. The whole is now dissected by well-developed valley systems to a 
depth of over 4,000 feet, having been refilled with 200 feet or more of waste, after- 
wards reexcavated. Some idea of the amount of silt in these streams was obtained 
in seeing two basins over half a mile wide, that were formed by landslides only 
thirty years ago, but now filled with red silt. 

At about 25 miles east of Aikart Pass the Aikart valley is confronted by a 
high transverse fault-scarp of uptilted piedmont. After making a short bend 
it cuts through this with a narrower and flat-bottomed valley with vertical sides, 
exposing a piedmont conglomerate inclining gently east downstream. In the 
mountain valley above there has been a broad refilling terrace cut on one side by a 
narrow gorge 220 feet deep. But in the uptilted piedmont those traditions do 
not hold and we have a flat-bottomed channel with narrow terraces rising, perhaps, 
30 feet above stream and converging with it downwards. 


DESERTS. 283 


The principal river which traverses the Tarim basin is the Yarkend Darya, 
which flows to Lob-nor after having been joined by the Kizil Su from the west, 
Ak Su from the north, and the Kotan Darya, which heads in Tibet and crosses 
between 200 and 300 miles of flying sands of the desert nucleus before reaching 
that trunk-stream. All other streams are consumed in the piedmont zone encir- 
cling its vast nucleus of flying sands,and through whose uptilted margins of more 
ancient alluvium they have carved prolongations of their valleys. The piedmont 
zone thus becomes of special interest in its exposures of various Quaternary hori- 
zons and stands as a structural key to the crustal movements peculiar to its basin 
as a whole. With its uptilted margins often composing half its width, this zone 
varies up to a hundred miles across with irregular limits, here and there containing 
an isolated area of flying sands, no doubt derived from the sifting of its silt. 


peer rrr rare eS ——————— 





Fig. 461.—The Dargum Canal in the Up-warped Loess-steppe of Samarkand. 


THE UPTILTED PIEDMONTS OF NORTHWESTERN TARIM AS A KEY TO THE PAST. 


In northwestern Tarim alluviation of the piedmont zone is nearly confined 
to that from smaller streams, while the larger systems tributary to Lob-nor traverse 
or cross it in channels slowly decreasing in depth downstream. If it be crossed 
on a trail over portions independent of these larger streams and where alluviation 
from smaller streams is building the playas and gravel-plains of to-day; if we 
proceed mountainwards over such areas, in the course of 15 or 20 miles from the 
edge of the great sand behind we come to where no deposition is going on, and 
there begin shallow channels debouching from the margin of abandoned piedmont 
to spread below. From there on to the mountains this ancient piedmont slopes 
up, ever higher, above the streams dissecting it. Riding on to this, we find its 
dry red silt, left prey to wind, has withered into varied and fantastic forms—a 
vast deflated area of flat-topped remnants ranged in rows, with wide intervening 
trenches that are half-choked with heaps of sand. These miniature monadnocks 
of deflation stand to a general level, while the trenches vary up to 15 feet in depth, 


284 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


exposing red layers of laminated sandy clay, and doubtless range across the direc- 
tion of prevalent wind, as there is a constancy of leeward overhanging sides. 
Everywhere they are associated with heaps of sand derived from the silt, of which 
all finer material has been drifted away, doubtless to settle as loess in grassy 
mountain valleys. Anyhow, wherever the finer material is now, it has been 
totally removed by the wind that excavated the trenches and left their sand 
constituent behind. Another interesting feature is the frequency of large masses 
of sand piled on top of these ridges, to occupy spaces of calm in the eddies of 
windwork. 

Proceeding still mountainwards, we soon find these trenches of deflation 
floored by hard gravel-beds, and in the course of a few miles the silt deposit thins 
out and dwindles into spits and iso- 
lated areason the gravel-plain, giving 
it a mottled aspect as seen from a Me 
distance—mottled only inshadeand 934 
texture, as both are red. ‘This is e 
the transition from silt to gravel, 
for in a short distance it is all one 75 
vast expanse of gravel or cobbles 69 
varying up to,4 or 5 inches in size. 647 


grass 


x 


Here, therefore, is record of two 
significant changes of conditions suc- 
ceeding each other—first; a moun- 
tainward recession of alluviation 
bringing its zone of fine deposits over 
its more ancient zone of coarse de- ote 
posits; second, a dissection of both 20st ick 
preceding zones by the channels now 15 Ss gy ‘ne cross -oeaee 
occupied, moving alluviation again 
to a zone farther out than before the treba ra ete 
first change. It may be that the page aL 
first resulted from a decrease of Fig. 462.—Vertical Section of Interlapping Loess and Alluvium in 
precipitation corresponding to that eee ata Canal Comin an 
extreme reaction which followed the 


glacial period, as evidenced by moraine underlying the glaciers of Pamir. That 
the second resulted from an increase of grade caused by an uptilting of the margins 
of Tarim will be shown as we proceed. 

Now we are perhaps 25 miles from the great sand, and our abandoned pied- 
mont develops into a bad-land topography, an inclined table-land dissected into 
a desert of red mountains rising ever higher above us as we ride slowly up the 
bottom of a canyon. At first the canyon walls are built entirely of piedmont 
conglomerates with here and there a layer 1 to 3 feet thick of silt, and all in slope 
conforming to that of the plain above. Then towards the bottom of the wall 
appears a surface beveling the tilted strata of a still more ancient piedmont series, 


Heater y Mate, le! 








DESERTS. 285 


perhaps the unconformity between Tertiary and Quaternary time. This uptilted 
series contrasts with that above in being of fine silts and sandstones, with only 
an occasional bed of conglomerate, and is much more consolidated. But its 
detailed structure is that of alluvium and appears exactly like those silts deflated 
on the surface farther out and whose thickness up to 4o feet is exposed in channels 
cut by larger streams. The beveled strata rise more and more to view with 
occasional masses rising above their general surface of erosion as monadnocks 
buried in the later piedmont, and, in time, some ridges rise out into open air, thus 
taking part in the topography of to-day. 








Fig. 463.—Terraces of Markan Su. 


The canyon is now perhaps 500 feet in depth and cut half in the older series. 
Its depth increases to 1,000 feet and more while the older series rises, outcropping 
from the now much-dissected piedmont more often, until at length we find it as 
spurs projecting from border masses of ranges entirely composed of it (the older 
series), and its tilt has steadily increased. These mountains, thus composed of 
desert piedmont strata built as these now forming, were in Quaternary time the 
































Fig. 464.—Deflated Silts and Residual Sand-dunes (Tarim). 


source of the red silts and conglomerates composing the more recently dissected 
piedmont and are together with them the source of materials laid down on the 
oasis playas and piedmonts of to-day. Continuing the journey into the mountains 
there were seen remnants of a high-uplifted and much-dissected topography of 
mature form and doubtless corresponding to the dissected piedmont derived from 
them. This topography, none of which may be termed a peneplain, but which 
nevertheless conforms to that found on the border ranges of Pamir, is doubtless an 
equivalent of the mature stage found by Davis in the Tian Shan and Bailey Willis 
in Central China. 

Such in general are the great features of Western Tarim. Yet one character- 
istic of importance should be considered. We have seen how a wide margin of 


286 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


the Tarim basin has been uptilted in Quaternary time, and it may be said that 
this tilt gradually increases mountainwards, so that a horizon nearly flat in its 
far-out extension is bent up to 10° or 15° and more near the mountains. Besides 
this general marginal tilt, there have been more local movements in the form of 
broad anticlinal arches nosed up, each with a transverse fault-scarp facing moun- 
tainwards and surmounted by its anticlinal surface sloping gently back into the 
plain. These ‘‘up-nosed’’ piedmont strata, bent behind and faulted out in front, 
some of them rising as high as 500 feet out of the plain, range about parallel to 
the bordering mountains and are found even as far out as Kashgar. 


EVIDENCE OF RECENT CHANGE TO EXTRA DRY. 


The last great change over the Tarim basin has been one of desiccation. Of 
this we have both physiographic and historic records, which tell that it became 
serious about a thousand years ago, when some hundreds of cities were over- 
whelmed by sand. Some of these ruins were excavated by Stein, and Mr. Pumpelly 
found mention of them in Chinese literature in the imperial archives of Pekin. 
It is also believed there were then expansive bodies of water of which Lob-nor 
and other shrunken lakes and brackish tarns are the withering survivals. During 
the time of greater precipitation much of the great area of dunes throughout Tarim 
was doubtless grassed over, and we may thus ascribe its burial of cities to sand 
set free when rainfall had so seriously decreased that grass failed and left the 
dunes bare and free to drift. 


TENTATIVE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PAST IN TARIM. 


First cycle (Pliocene). 
The Tarim basin defined with high border ranges eroding to mature topography and 
building immense piedmonts of gravel, sand, and silt. 


Second cycle (Quaternary). 
Uplift of border ranges, with deep gashing of old topography and sinking of plains, 
with upbending margins worn down by streams beveling their tilting strata, with 
an erosion plain and the building of a later piedmont over that. 


Third cycle (Quaternary). 

Second uplift of border ranges, with terracing down of valleys partially alluviated 
ere the close of the second cycle, and marginal tilting up of plains with dissection 
of their second-cycle piedmonts? Shrinkage of alluviation at close of the glacial 
period and recession of silt zone over gravel zone. 


Fourth cycle (Postglacial). 

Third uplift of border ranges with stream-channeling of valley flood-plains of glacial 
alluviation during the third cycle, and more sinking of plains with tilting and 
dissection of their third-cycle piedmonts. 

Recent decrease of precipitation, shrinking of rivers and lakes, and desolation of dune 
pastures, setting free the sand that buried the cities of Tarim a thousand years 
ago, 


DESERTS. 287 


THE FERGANA BASIN. 
ITS BROAD OUTLINES. 


The Fergana basin lies north of the Pamirs as a deep embayment between 
the Alai Mountains and Tian Shan, or rather between two far-western members 
of the Tian Shan that branch out and nearly join again in the west to form a 
structural depression. Its plains, about 200 miles long and 50 miles wide, are 
thus nearly closed around by high mountains and connect with those of the Aralo- 
Caspian basin, of which it is a tributary, through a western gap only 15 miles wide, 
of which over 10 miles is blocked by half-buried mountains. Though it has 
doubtless accumulated most of its erosion products, an important portion must 
have escaped in the Syr Darya, through the outlet to be accumulated in the greater 
basin. With its border ranges the Fergana basin attains a maximum relief of 
18,000 feet, while passes stand ordinarily about 13,000 feet above its lower plains 
of 1,000 feet elevation above sea. As an organic whole it approaches nearer the 
ideal type of basin than any other one considered by us. Its high mountains have 
responded to a varied series of glacial changes, and its nearly self-contained state 
has resulted in the differential crustal movements characteristic of such basins. 

The Alai Mountains ranging along its southern border rise rather abruptly 
as seen from Marghelan. From there they appear as high snow-mantled pyramids 
and giant peaks with cliffs truncating broad sloping fields of crevassed snow and 
ice. This high crest ranges east and west behind a flanking mass of rather flat- 
backed mountains with but few projecting horns—a high, uplifted, outlying mass, 
once base-leveled, but now deeply gashed by gorges that end abruptly to open 
out in a fairly even line. It was shown in my report of 1903 that the Alai Range 
appears to have been thrice uplifted in Quaternary time. 


ALAI EROSION CYCLES (BASED ON TALDIC PROFILE). 


First cycle (Preglacial). 

Pliocene, Alai worn to low relief and half-buried in piedmont deposits with projecting 

monadnocks. 
Second cycle (Quaternary). 

Uplifted about 1,500 feet and gashed with valleys that widened after uplift had ceased 

and partly refilled as the plains aggraded, raising their base-levels. 
Third cycle (Quaternary). 

Uplift tilting the transverse horizontal till the dissected northern side was about 3,500 
feet higher than the buried southern side; valleys then alluviated again as in the 
second cycle. 

Fourth cycle (Postglacial). 
Uplift of about roo feet with canyoning of third-cycle flood-plain still continued. 


UPLIFT OF THE TIAN SHAN. 


In the Bural-bas-tau of Tian Shan, northeast of the Fergana basin plains, 
Professor Davis found a key to the history of that side. He states: 


The evenness of the plateau-like highland, all snow-covered at an estimated height of at least 12,000 
or 13,000 feet, was most remarkable. . . . It must have gained its present altitude with comparative 
rapidity, and in geologically modern time. . . . . When it still lay low, the lowland of which it was 
a part must have been much more extensive than the present highland; for lowlands can not be worn 
down on resistant crystalline rocks without the very general reduction of all neighboring and quiescent 
structures. 


288 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


And, as he goes on to say, the fact that some of the Tian Shan ranges are 
now gashed into more alpine form means that “they were somewhat less worn- 
down in the previous cycle of erosion, or, like the Dongus-tau, already more con- 
sumed (owing to greater uplift or to weaker structure) in the present cycle of 
erosion or both.’’* 


te us 


alt sat - 


Wy 


Se a 


Wl 


| 


a 


\\ 


Hh 








n pi 
il ie tlh) pil ; yi MEN HWS 
Hil MWh { \\ \ me i W wl Bp Ha Araya Be 
Hi Mi ih \\\ < = \\ SMW) Hii i TZ. aa 
HH i ii wee WS Aue \ys Is ‘é Tw’ V4 WN MA 
eee ve 
Till mM bl ¥ LS i Fr gE 
sii ii i piso Ch nk at of : 
yi Hi oe ie 
yt > ‘4% 
:, g \ 
Mr a i 
WA “ sng os ah 
he Zany satis wayuill fie a a va : 
why, AANA Zi 
Z Y : ail ey 
ex Aare SZ ky) 
““ BB 2\ Ve Wa, gs a 
; o \\ Al / 
NS sie ii \ Z gil 
aN 
e 10 ceased 
ae Kurgan ----- Trend of faults 


Fig. 465.—Uptilted Piedmonts of Marghelan. 


In the Fergana basin we have, as already hinted, a remarkably good example 
of the differential earth-movements characteristic of a sinking deposition area 
with uplifting of eroding border ranges. And there, as in the Tarim basin, this 
movement has involved an encroachment of mountains on plains through uptilting 
of their margins. We have seen how, with the Alai Mountains, uplift was periodic 
with intervening times of quiescence, which with the Taldic gave rise to four 
erosion cycles, the first one closing in Central Asia’s peneplain stage, and how 





* Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication No. 26, Explorations in Turkestan, 1903, p. 73. 


DESERTS. 289 


that low relief was dissected during the following three uplifts with their erosion 
cycles. It is gratifying to find corroboration of this threefold division of uplift 
in the structural deformations of plain-deposits derived therefrom. ‘There are 
three rows of uptilted piedmonts ranging parallel to the Alai Mountains, as the 
three respective marginal deformations corresponding to the threefold uplift 
both in magnitude and degree of subsequent erosion. It is further interesting 
to find that these three belts of uplifted piedmont, which converge towards the 
mountains opposite Khokand, near the western or lower end of the basin, widen 
eastward to include a considerable area of the eastern end of the plains, where 
deposition has necessarily been much heavier, as that portion lies before a vast 
mass of high-uplifted mountains. Another feature affected by this process and 
characteristic of the Fergana plains, especially on their Alai side, is the threefold, 
and sometimes fourfold, division of distributary systems. Larger streams descend- 
ing from the Alai cross all three belts of uptilted piedmont, having cut down as 
they were uplifted, and apportion their depositions over areas between them, 
some escaping beyond the last to spread towards the middle of the basin. Each 
stream, therefore, gives rise to from two to four successive groups of delta-oases, 
thus giving an interesting variation of type Ia of my classification. In several 
instances a stream escapes from its first delta in two or more distributaries to 
form other deltas beyond, so that the intervening uplifted ridge of piedmont has 
been dissected by two or more channels separated by many miles (fig. 465). 

The oldest belt of uptilted piedmonts bordering the Alai Mountains probably 
contains products of the first erosion cycle and was thus upheaved during the 
uplift which caused the breaking up of its peneplain stage. On the Terek trail 
between Osh and Gulcha it attains a height of over 3,000 feet above the present 
Gulcha River flood-plain. There it is a mass of loosely cemented conglomerates 
with confused dips, and of which the old surmounting piedmont topography has 
nearly disappeared. The later upheavals of plain-deposits rarely rise more than 
a few hundred feet above present deposition. 

Where we approached the northern margin of the Fergana plains in the regions 
of Chust and Khojent, only one belt of uptilted piedmont was observed, probably 
because the mountains on that side are much lower and doubtless have been so 
in the past. This one belt, however, is of especial interest as it can be traced 
all the way from Namangan to Khojent, a distance of about 140 miles, and crosses 
the Syr Darya, which has cut down as it was uplifted. 

From the standpoint of hydrography alone, the Fergana basin expresses 
the same series of cyclical events deduced from the topography and structure 
of its mountains and plains. In the mountains larger streams join at oblique 
angles and generally inherit the courses held before the first uplift of the low 
relief then drained by them. Their smaller tributaries contrast with this rule 
by joining the larger nearly at right angles and have come to be since that uplift, 
We have seen how streams descending from the Alai split into distributary systems 
in a manner determined by the marginal deformations of the plains and that 
feature may be recognized with a glance at the hydrography on a large-scale 
Russian map. 


290 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


PRESENT OSCILLATION IN THE DEPOSITION ZONES. 


Four out of the five zones of deposition characteristic of a desert basin are 
found in Fergana, namely, glacial, alluvial, flying sands, and loess, while the 
lacustrian is lacking. An area of about 500 square miles of the central portion 
of the basin forms its nucleus of flying sands, while two other smaller nuclei of 
dunes are found in its western half—one just west of Khokand, the other crossed 
by the Syr where this basin narrows near Khojent at its western end. Most of 
the alluvial zone is barren gravel steppe and only its small areas of silt give rise 
to oases. Loess is nearly confined to its bordering uplands, a portion of which 
is composed of uplifted piedmont structures. The nuclei of flying sands are now 
expanding, steadily encroaching on the alluvial zone as its perennially flooded 
areas decrease, a fact evidenced by Russian and native records as well as our 
own observations. A considerable part of the loess zone, its lower areas, is now 
dead and suffering erosion, while living grass-covered areas have shrunken to 
pastures ranging above 4,000 to 6,000 feet. 


RECONSTRUCTION OF PAST EVENTS OF THE FERGANA BASIN. 


First cycle (Pliocene). 

Pliocene basin defined with high relief of border ranges eroding and building the plains 
of waste under desert conditions. Cycle closes with the low relief of Central 
Asia’s peneplain stage. 

Second cycle (Quaternary). 

High block uplifting of border ranges with gashing of their mature first-cycle topog- 
raphy, and corresponding marginal upbendings of the piedmonts constructed 
by the first cycle. Closes with well-widened mountain gorges partially alluviated. 

Third cycle (Quaternary). 

Similar to second, but of less magnitude. 

In the Alai Range, characterized by tilting of uplifted blocks raising that side next the 
plains. Nothing is yet known about it in the Tian Shan to the north. Its mar- 
ginal deformations of piedmonts built by the second cycle were on new lines 
farther out on the plains than those upheaved by the second cycle. 

Fourth cycle (Postglacial). 

Similar to the second and third, but of much less magnitude and still in the uplifting 
stage. 

Marginal deformations of third-cycle piedmonts on new lines still farther out on the 


plains. Climate in process of desiccation, flying sands expanding, alluvial activity 
shrinking, living loess areas shrinking to higher limits. 


This reconstruction of the past is of course purely tentative and subject to 
subdivision with cycles of less intensity or duration. 


DESERTS. 291 


THE ARALO-CASPIAN BASIN. 
COMPLICATIONS AND FUNCTIONAL PECULIARITIES ARISING FROM SHAPE AND SIZE. 


The broad definitions and most of the great features of the Aralo-Caspian 
basin have been so well set forth by Professor Pumpelly that little more than 
a description of its four deposition zones remains to be here undertaken. In the 
Tarim and Fergana basins we found that plains of deposition and their deformed 
margins express fully as much as their bordering mountains do, and perhaps even 
more, of the history of their basins. This is especially so of the Aralo-Caspian, 
where lacustrian zones become an important aid. Its peculiar shape and but 
half-isolated state, with naught but low divides north and west, have given it a 
history so involved and complicated with outside influences that we must be 
contented with explaining only a very few of its greater features and direct our 
attention to those concerning the archeology of its southern part. 

An important part of its physiography has already entered this report in 
undertaking that of the Pamir, Alai valley and Kizil Su, Karategin and Hissar, 
Zerafshan, and Fergana basin, which taken together compose most of its high 
eastern drainage area. In considering the immense area of high mountains drained 








r : -—— a 2a en - - —-- ae 





Fig. 466.—Manish Valley Terraces (in the Kopet Dagh Mountains). 


by the nine rivers—Ural, Chu, Syr, Zerafshan, Amu, Murg-ab, Tedjen, Atrek, and 
Kur—and the great flow of water brought in by the Volga, draining all of Eastern 
Russia, we must marvel at the degree of aridity signified by such a small area 
of water exceeding evaporation as that which survives in the Aral and Caspian— 
its two shrunken seas. Only half its larger rivers reach their seas at all, while 
the remainder with scores of other streams, by no means small, dwindle away 
on the plains, and others fail to reach even the plains, but die far up in the valleys 
they excavated when precipitation was heavier. Central-Asian hydrography is 
thus often the reverse of drainage systems in regions of ordinary rainfall familiar 
to most of us. Many of its rivers have the aspect of a drainage system reversed 
as they decrease in size downstream and finally split into distributaries resembling 
tributaries on the plain. 

The evolution of a basin so large as the Aralo-Caspian can not be expected 
to have been through the cyclical uniformity followed by a small basin with a 
complete periphery of mountains. Indeed, it is so large that there is no surprise 
in finding that different portions entered from time to time into fairly independent 
series of changes, or developed in a way causally connected only in a broad sense. 


292 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN~DESERTS AND OASES. 


To begin with, the mountains directly bordering it have contributed but 
a small portion of the sediments spread before them. The Amu, for instance, 
brings most of its load from many hundred miles behind the border ranges, whereas 
these border ranges probably had the benefit of rising to give way for sinking of 
most of that load, if the differential movements of sinking plains of deposition 
and rising of worn-down mountains resulted from such a displacement. Another 
deviation from the ideal type is a serious difference in height of mountains from 
east, where they rise to over 20,000 feet, to west, where the Kopet Dagh attain a 
maximum of only 9,000 feet. And this difference appears to have been no less in 
Tertiary time, for no crystallines have yet risen to view in the Kopet Dagh, though 
the Pamir and Tian Shan have weathered to their granite cores. More sediments 
were, therefore, loaded onto the plains in the east, and we find that mountains 
there were uplifted higher and more often than the Kopet Dagh, where only one 
really great erosion cycle appears to have followed the peneplain stage, though 
the second and third uplifts are recorded on a small scale. Besides all this, the 
plains have been seriously warped, a fact evidenced by channels of the Oxus and 
Zerafshan and other streams, probably as a result of the great difference of deposi- 
tion load over different areas. 

Perhaps even more serious than these internal organic peculiarities must have 
been the climatic complications arising from external sea connections. A recent 
connection between the Caspian and Black Seas through the Manitch, north of 
the Caucasus, and a more remote overflow of an Aralo-Caspian Sea through Siberia 
to the Arctic, limit the possibility of climatic calculations based on determinations 
of sea-water areas. The moment an interior sea either overflows or receives an 
influx from some other basin or of tide-water, its surface area ceases to be a function 
of climate. And, on top of all this, the river Don, behaving in the uncertain 
manner of a large aggrading river, may have flowed alternately into the Caspian 
and Black Seas. It is, however, hoped that a more complete study of the past and 
present marine fauna and flora of the Aralo-Caspian Basin may decipher most of 
these remarkable hydrographic variations. 


THE LACUSTRIAN ZONE (ARALO-CASPIAN SEA EXPANSIONS). 


Its lacustrian or marine history, though involved, affects such a large area 
and throws so much light on its climate, especially during archeological time, 
that it becomes of first importance. Russian and other geologists have naturally 
directed special attention to this aspect of the basin, but their work has so far 
been lacking in quantitative results. After the early Tertiary upheavals of its 
peripheral mountain ranges, a Tertiary sea, perhaps at first connected with the 
Mediterranean and Arctic, appears to have shrunken till in late Tertiary time it 
washed the oldest shores indicated on Konshin’s map (fig. 467). From that it withered 
into an Aral and Caspian with shores below those of to-day. This fact, recognized 
first by Davis, is demonstrated on both sides of the Caspian, where valleys dissect- 
ing its high-level Tertiary sediments are contoured up to 200 feet and higher by 
shore-lines of its later Quaternary expansions, but extend down under water or 


DESERTS. 293 


are drowned by the present level. This reasoning is enforced by Walthers’s state- 
ment that in a well-boring on the Caspian shore, southeast of Krasnovodsk, dune- 
sand was penetrated to a depth of 35 meters below the sea-level. 

Therefore, a long interval of subaerial erosion elapsed after the Caspian had 
shrunken from its great Pliocene Aralo-Caspian expanse to below its present level, 
and before it rose to its higher Quaternary shores. Assuming that it expanded 
from this low level, called early Quaternary by Davis, to unite again with the Aral 
and transgress the Kara Kum, we have an early Quaternary cycle of desiccation 




















MAP OF 
THE ANCIENT COURSE 
OF THE 
OXUS (AMOU-DARIA) 
RC WSs . and the several phases 
Sh ¥; SAQws \ of the recession of the 
os : ARALO-CASPIAN SEA 
ISEKe . from the beginning of the 
quaternary epoch to the present, 
50 100 200 





























of VOus -iourt 
D | 
e 

















Scale of Kilometers 
Lonzitude of Poulkova (27°58’ W.Paris) 42 








. | \ 
Puits/Teherychly Nee 


y Wess. 


i 


























Plateau of the | 
Kara-Koum 
| 


SATS 
SS 








| 
| a . Ziandin 








Pehardjoui 
] aa] 


ON ial / -\- ¢Bourdalik 
; v4 O\\_ | 
[| J ofuitsiouten-aat | “>. 


Eletan 
3 
Soultan-bent 


























RS Ancient limits of the Aralo-Caspian Basin bas @S¢rask 
at the beginning of the quaternary period. t 


KS QQ Limit of the Aralo-Caspian Basin 


during the quaternary period. 





PON Limits of the Caspian Sea and of the Aralo-Sarykamych Sea bP 
Bes at the beginning of the present period. i / 2 Pende 
32 


o.. 2 27 28 29 














33 








After Konshin 


Fig. 467.—Map of the Aralo-Caspian Expansions (Konshin). 


as distinct from the Pliocene. During this it appears to have fallen to lower and 
lower shores till but a narrow connection existed between the Aral and Caspian 
through the Sari Kamish Basin. In the course of desiccation both seas shrank 
till this connection became an overflow of the Aral through the Usboi channel 
to the Caspian, which is probably an historic stage. 

Davis’s recognition that “the Quaternary sea resulted from an expansion 
of a smaller early-Quaternary sea, to which the waters had shrunk from their 
great Pliocene extension,’ becomes of importance in that it demonstrates a pre- 
glacial aridity more pronounced than that of to-day. And if we place the great 


294 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN. DESERTS AND OASES. 


Pliocene sea contemporaneous with the peneplain stage of its peripheral mountains, 
and the very shrunken early-Quaternary sea with the following high-uplifted 
stage of those mountains, still preglacial, the phenomena fall into organic accord; 
for the surface area of a landlocked sea is a direct function of the climate of its 
basin—the climate of its basin varies with the general continental geography 
and all mundane climatic change. Of the geographical factor, most important 
is variation in the shape of the basin; and, as shown in preceding sections, this 
shape changed through a series of erosion cycles with uplifts giving its periphery 
alternately low and high reliefs. 

Assuming, then, that the great Pliocene Aralo-Caspian Sea belonged to the 
peneplain stage at the end of our first erosion cycle, and that the early Quaternary, 
low Aral, and Caspian shrunken survivals of that sea belonged to the high-relief 
stage of its uplifted periphery of mature mountains dissected during our second 
erosion cycle, we are next confronted by the later wide-expanded Aralo-Caspian 
Sea. Knowing that during the third and fourth erosion cycles this basin suffered 
a great mundane change of climate in the glacial period, it is natural to correlate 
phases of its high Quaternary sea with assumed increases of precipitation belonging 
to the glacial epochs. Although we do not, as yet, know how many phases there 
were to the high Quaternary sea, it might roughly be called a glacial sea, leaving 
the epochs to future exploration. It may be that Konshin’s next lower Aralo- 
Caspian shores, when the Gulf of Kara Kum had dried out and only a strait running 
south of Ust-Urt connected the Aral and Caspian, were postglacial. This brings 
us into the third erosion cycle of its high eastern drainage; and the following 
uplift, ushering in our fourth erosion cycle, might account, in part at least, for 
the last historic shrinkage, severing the Aral and Caspian from their recent Usboi 
overflow connection to the two low seas of to-day—withered survivals of a 
glacial mediterranean. 


RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE ALLUVIAL AND FLYING-SANDS ZONES. 


Turning to the other three lowland zones of deposition, we find additional 
data, especially on the more recent developments of this great basin. Glancing 
at a large-scale map we see most of that area from the Caspian to the high eastern 
peripheral ranges covered by dune-sand. Russian geologists have ascribed that 
of the Kara Kum to deflation of its Quaternary sea deposits. But, as we have 
shown, vast nuclei of flying sands inevitably accumulate from wind-work over the 
silted flood-plains of a desert basin, and all areas of its plains in the neighborhood 
of alluviation, whether or not far removed from ancient sea deposits, are charac- 
terized by them. We, therefore, differ by attributing much, if not most, of the 
Kara Kum sands to wind-work over the flood-plains of late Quaternary time. 
Some of it was undoubtedly derived from deflation of marine deposits, but those 
deposits are much more resistant than fresh-dried alluvium, especially than the 
sandspits of its distributary channels. In either case all the sand is ultimately 
of alluvial origin. 

The wide-expanded zone of flying sands we find surrounded by an alluvial 
zone, narrow between it and the southern peripheral ranges, but widening east- 


DESERTS. 295 


ward over the Hunger Steppe and Fergana plains, 7. e., widening in proportion 
to the height of mountains drained. This alluvial zone, furthermore, extends 
into the great Sand, where it is penetrated by the rivers Tedjen, Murg-ab, and 
Zerafshan, and where it is divided by the rivers Syr and Amu crossing to the Aral 
Sea. Now, it is a fact of significance that all five of these large rivers, as well as 
many smaller ones that still reach, or have recently reached, well out onto the 
plains, have cut channels from ro to 100 feet or more in depth to where they 
debouch over deltas. It is, moreover, characteristic of these channels that they 
vary in depth in such a way as to indicate a varied warping of the plains. And 
though most of them are still occupied by streams, there are many instances of 
channels now always dry, but so recently abandoned by the streams now ending 
many miles above in a shrunken condition that ground-water still survives, obtain- 
able in shallow wells of the nomads. On our large-scale Russian maps there are 
remarkable fragments of such channels so far removed from present alluviation 
that it is difficult, sometimes impossible, to say what river they belonged to. 
Others appear to have been the work of distributaries cutting into the plains 
they had once overflowed. Where distributaries have been thus incised, we have 
definite proof of crustal movement. Our most striking examples of distributaries 
cut into a warped plain are afforded by the Zerafshan, while of those cut into the 
zone of uptilted piedmonts we find most remarkable examples along the southern 
border of the Fergana plains. 

The vast alluvial zone of this basin was built by its rivers when they wan- 
dered freely. Now most of them are relatively fixed. That the Turkoman 
Trough was at one time the Amu’s flood-plain, when that river flowed to the 
Caspian, building the immense deltas characterizing the coast south of Krasno- 
vodsk, seems more than likely. That would be postglacial. Then it and doubt- 
less most of the large rivers were unconfined and spread a large portion of their 
load on the plains, whereas silt of the Amu and Syr of to-day is mostly in transit 
to the Aral. This period of free-shifting rivers with unconstrained alluviation 
was followed by warping. Here we must remember the postglacial uplift of 
mountains, the peripheral uplift of our fourth erosion cycle. The warping of 
plains, uptilting of their margins, and uplift of their border ranges fall logically 
together into one cycle of a basin’s differential movements. As a confirmation 
of this idea we have the corresponding increase of aridity, shrinkage of sea-water 
area, contraction of streams, shrinkage of living loess, and expansion of flying 
sands, and, finally, depopulation of oases. 


RECENT CHANGES IN THE COURSE OF THE OXUS (AMU DARYA). 


The archeologic and historic period of this basin is treated under “ Physi- 
ography of Oases,’’ chapter xv, this report, but there has been so much dis- 
cussion about historic changes of river courses, especially of the Oxus, that a 
physiography of the basin must take up the problem. Elisée Reclus states: 


The great changes that have taken place in the course of the Oxus within the historic period are amongst 
the most remarkable physiographic phenomena, comparable in recent times only to the periodic displace- 
ments of the Hoang Ho. . . . . In the days of Strabo the Oxus, ‘‘largest of all Asiatic rivers except 


296 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


those of India,’’ flowed to the Caspian, and the trade between the Euxine and India followed this river, 
continuing the valley of the Kur eastwards of the Hyrcanian Sea. But in the time of the first Arab and 
Turkish writers, the Oxus, described by Edrisi as ‘‘superior in volume, depth, and breadth to all the rivers 
of the world,’”’ had been diverted northwards to the Aral. In the fourteenth century it had again resumed 
its course to the Caspian, towards which there is a relatively steep incline, for the bifurcation of the present 
and the old bed below Kunya-Urgentch is 140 feet above the level of the Aral, and 380 feet above that of 
the Caspian. The new channel was blocked for about 200 years; but towards the middle of the sixteenth 
century the Amu, for the second time during the historic epoch, shifted its course from the Caspian to 
the Aral. 


If so, it has followed the present course for only about 350 years. 

These facts, based on the writings of classical and medieval travelers, and 
ancient maps, make it appear as though the Oxus were normally an affluent of 
the Caspian. It was not until the last few decades that actual physiographic 
study of the region opened up another side to the question. Konshin, Mushketoff, 
Sievers, Hedroitz, Lessar, and Somkoff have made special study of the problem. 
The now dry Usboi channel, from just south of Krasnovodsk, skirting around 
southeast of the Ust-Urt northwards to the tarn of Sari Kamish, has thus been a 
great subject for controversy. Few geographical problems have become more 
familiar than the question as to its origin. At first it was naturally taken for the 
historic course of the Oxus. Elisée Reclus, in reviewing explorations up to the 
time of his great work, was sure that it was. Conshin, after exploring it for two 
years, decided that the Oxus had never flowed that’ way directly, but that it was 
an ancient channel through which the Aral overflowed to the Caspian. 

The data now at hand are as follows: The Usboi is a channel in the uncon- 
solidated sediments of the steppe, starting southwestward from the Sari Kamish 
basin and thence skirting around the Ust-Urt escarpments down into the Balkhan 
Gulf of the Caspian, a distance of over 200 miles, with a total fall of about 234 
feet; it averages 60 to 70 feet in depth, about 3,000 feet in width, and resembles 
a river-bed with occasional islands and rapids, and in it still survives a series of 
brackish “‘shores’’ or pools. Three ancient distributaries of the Amu, channels 
now dry, run from the Amu’s present delta into the Sari Kamish basin. Elisée 
Reclus states that during the inundations of 1878 the river discharged 31,500 
cubic feet per second to the Sari Kamish. That it formerly flowed there regularly 
is evidenced by two epochs of ruined towns and cities along the abandoned courses. 
As there are no ruins along the Usboi, its water is supposed to have been brackish. 

The Usboi is, therefore, supposed to have been an overflow channel from the 
Sari Kamish, into which both the Amu and Syr have emptied. As the divide 
between the Aral and Sari Kamish basins appears to be at least 60 feet above that 
between the Caspian and Sari Kamish, the Aral was doubtless dried up when both 
its rivers were thus diverted, and only a small lake at whatever time the Oxus 
alone flowed west. As a full Sari Kamish sea would be of much less surface area 
than the present Aral, or about 130 by 70 miles, the Usboi would still receive an 
overflow if both rivers were again diverted there. The Usboi, therefore, throws 
no light upon the climate of our basin. But the more ancient stage of a wider 
strait or continuity of level between the Aral and Caspian, that stage which 


DESERTS. 297 


Konshin believes to have followed the high Quaternary sea, is another, more 
ancient, and indicative of a different climate. 

Though thus forced to disbelieve that the Oxus ever flowed through the Usboi, 
we can not utterly discredit the writings of geographers and travelers so renowned 
as Ptolemy, Strabo, Pliny, and others. Assuming that during one or more periods 
of the past two millenniums water of the Oxus did flow to the Caspian, there 
are two alternatives: First, that the Usboi overflow, as a continuous waterway 
from the Caspian up the Oxus, might have been referred to as the Lower Oxus; 
second, that the Oxus may, in historic times, have flowed to the Caspian through 
some other channel. As both the Aral and Sari Kamish were through whole 
centuries omitted from writings and maps, it would seem that whatever waterway 
there was must have been far south of them or that they were dry. On the other 
hand, there appears to be little doubt that the Oxus recently flowed west from 
near Charjui through the Turkoman Trough and so into the Balkhan Gulf. This 
channel, the Kelif Usboi, or Ungus, indicated on Russian maps and known to the 
Turkoman, has not attracted government exploration as an engineering project, 
such as the Usboi of Ust-Urt, and must therefore remain only a possibility. 

However often the Oxus may have shifted, or whatever course it may have 
followed in reaching the Caspian or in contributing overflows to that sea, the 
total surface area of sea-water in the Aralo-Caspian basin would have been but 
little, if at all, affected by such oscillations. The River Don problem is more 
serious from this point of view. The Don, converging with the Volga to a point 
about 350 miles north of the Caucasus, now bends sharply away from there and 
flows to the Black Sea. There appears a possibility that it was once a branch of 
the Volga. The change of course may have resulted from faulting across the 
channel, and the river’s grade is very slight—only about 5 inches to the mile. 
But if it ever did flow to the Volga, the change to its present course was so long 
ago that time enough has elapsed to cut the present wide Don valley in con- 
solidated rocks. Assuming that Don water flowed to the Caspian before earth- 
movements forced it westward and to cut a deep channel in the plains, the sur- 
face area of Aralo-Caspian sea-water would not have been so much increased as 
might first appear the case. It is much smaller than the Amu and yet the Amu 
and Syr together maintain a surface area of only 26,300 square miles—that of the 
Aral. If the Don were now diverted to the Caspian, it might raise it till its surface 
area increased by perhaps 10,000 square miles. But that would change its present 
outlines but little except over the low marshes of its northern end, while the 
Kara Kum would be transgressed by some few miles. The Don, therefore, can 
not have effected any of those great changes we are discussing. 


298 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN_ DESERTS AND OASES. 


TENTATIVE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PAST IN THE ARALO-CASPIAN BASIN. 


First cycle (Pliocene). 
Opens with high relief of Pliocene mountains. 
Closes with low relief of Central Asia’s peneplain stage; great Pliocene Aralo-Caspian 
Sea; broad continuity of grass over the plains and gently rolling steppes of their 
worn-down peripheral mountains. 


Second and third Cycles (Quaternary). 

Preglacial: High uplift of peripheral mountains and general sinking of plains with 
upbending of their margins; change to high relief brings intense aridity and shrink- 
age of the great Pliocene sea till separated into an Aral* and Caspian as small 
if not smaller than the present. Most of what was water and grass in the first 
cycle is changed to barren desert. 

Glacial: Toward the end of the second cycle there begins the first epoch of the glacial 
period with its increase of precipitation f effected by mundane change; expansion 
of valley glaciers and ice-domes in the mountains, and birth of the great Russian 
ice-cap; swelling of rivers and seas till all unite into one hydrography, an Asiatic 
mediterranean reached by all the rivers of its basin; broad continuity of grass 
steppes and moderate climate with vast accumulation of loess. Between the 
second and third cycles a second peripheral uplift takes place with a sinking of 
the plains and marginal deformations of the piedmonts. <A long time lapses 
between the first and second glacial epochs and these are followed by a third and 
possibly a fourth epoch. 

Postglacial: The glacial sea (survives a while longer?) supported by melting of the last 
epoch’s ice, and maintains a moderate climate. As glacier ice vanishes, desicca- 
tion prevails under return to normal aridity and the sea withdraws to lower and 
lower shores till only the Usboi overflow connects the Aral and Caspian. It is a 
period of free alluviation over steppes abandoned by the sea; a period of incalcu- 
lable wandering of large rivers, and vast accumulations of flying sands. 


Fourth cycle (Archeologic). 


Uplift of peripheral mountains (so far slight, but still in process), and sinking of plains 
with varied warpings and marginal deformations; consequent incision of water- 
courses on the plains constraining alluviation to limited areas (and deep dropping 
in of the Caspian Sea floor in its southern half?); shrinkage of sea-water area 
severing the Usboi overflow (uncertain shifting of the Amu and Syr between the 
Araland Caspian, twice leaving the Aral—once before Christ and once 1550 A. D. 

as a shrunken marsh or lakelet with little or no influx?); recent 200-300 feet 

recession of glaciers; contraction of streams, shrinkage of living loess, and expan- 
sion of flying sands; depopulation of withering oases. 








*The Aral may have dried up entirely. 
{It may have been colder, but we have no proof either way. 








N << kK 


GREAT ALA! VALLEY 


t 
y eo ox 
4 xP ov 
y) Island of ; ae certs Yj 
Yy Kurumdi Epoch Moraine hoe 
y SS a F, : G) St SSB : GF A 
Y PROS, K ay! Su eG Pf LF z 
Rew eee wee 14 CODE Ae S29) kp 
YUehpy 


= 
Sa a, 

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POOR ALTA O42 eZy f2 

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a a a ape eae <7 
ar ar ards SHY) 
C27 


Sa 


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Horii 
Oncn4) Geer io 





TURKESTAN PEATE, G3 


Elevation in feet 









15000 
NW <——————_- 
a RE —<——— 0. SSS KIZYL ART PASS Sivide 
Yy over moraine 
vel ake Kara Kul 
Bateson i GREAT ALA! VALLEY at pee Uf? 
ne ane YY 
car? 40d Up cat 
Island of Dg ON OR Z 
Kurumdi Epoch Moraine WS 
4 SORIA LIL ELLY 
EES: Yi. 10000 
Af Y, 
Old Piedmont Floor A Pp Y ‘ Y Uy Yy WY LEGEND 
‘aes aa 
5 : 
YH Yy WY, ZEBSOIS Moraine 
UY Yi Saas 
y Stream bottom 
WL 
Alluvium 
a|-2 
o | ese : — 5000 
LOWLAND PLAINS c Bi) 
N oo. Terraces 
c c I 4000 
Ke) ge 
5 “3 — 3000 
1S) 
2 
@ dD) Horizontal scale 
fan) Magnitude and 02468 10 20 30 40 versts Gerace 
position of Block Tilt (ee SS ee ee ee 
(<r — 1000 
Sea level 


PROFILE OF VALLEY TERRACES AND MORAINES FROM OSH TO KARA KUL. 


CHAPTER XV.—OASES. 


THE OASIS AS A GEOLOGICAL PROBLEM. 


MAN AS A GEOLOGIC FACTOR IN EXCAVATION, TRANSPORTATION, AND DEPOSITION, 
AND A DIRECTOR OF ALLUVIAL DEPOSITION. 


How early man appeared in the region is a question that may never be solved, 
but the problem of the comparative antiquity of human records is more possible 
of solution. There are, geologically speaking, two kinds of human records—(r1) 
cuttings, such as canals, trails, tunnels, wells, pictographs, rock inscriptions, etc. ; 
(2) depositions, such as the débris of occupation, burials, and scattered remains. 
Those of the first kind, having been executed on the topography and bare rock 
of the land, remain where made until obliterated by erosion or burial. Those 
of the second kind are aggregations or single articles, of materials transported 
by man independent of the laws of natural transportation, and in defiance of 
all change beyond those of a single generation,* and are, therefore, especially sub- 
ject to erosion and transportation in regions of erosion; and to erosion and burial 
direct, as well as redistribution and burial, in regions of aggradation. Besides 
all these natural changes, remains especially of the second kind may be modified 
or shifted by succeeding generations of man. 

The immense accumulations of débris in cities and towns, accumulations 
brought together during long occupation, are of course by far the most important 
remains and belong to those of the second kind, deposition. It is of especial 
importance to analyze the structure of such an accumulation and have some 
understanding of the controlling factors in its growth. With the exception of 
a few public buildings of burnt brick in the larger cities, and a few cobblestone 
huts in the higher mountains, all houses in Central Asia are built of sun-dried 
mud. Without entering into the architecture, we may have a geologically suffi- 
cient understanding of them. The ordinary house has only one story, but a large 
proportion are of two, and inclose a courtyard with stables on one side. The 
walls vary from 1 to 2 feet thick, and each story from 7 to 9 feet high. ‘There 
are three kinds of roofs: (1) those throughout the plains, nearly all flat, of mud 
0.75 foot to 1.5 feet thick, laid over brush and split poles resting on beams; (2) 
those of the Persian or Afghan style, domes of mud without wood; and (3), those 
made entirely of wood and brush thatched with straw or reeds. Merv, Bokhara, 
Samarkand, Kokhand, and all the cities of Fergana are built with flat mud roofs, 
the smaller towns along the Persian frontier with mud domes, while some houses 
of Karategin and other places where the vegetation permits have sloping thatched 
roofs. Thirty years is said to be an ordinary lifetime for an adobe house with an 





* Moving and shaping matter into unstable positions and shapes. 
299 


300 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


adobe roof. When the roof falls a house is abandoned or rebuilt, but most of the 
old débris is graded over and new material brought in for the new structure. 
Fixing our eyes on Bokhara, perhaps the best example of a walled city of 
ancient style, we see long, heavy-laden caravans, some of camels, others of donkeys 
and horses, filing slowly into its crowded gates. Other caravans are issuing, 
and as many as go in, from day to day; but with this difference—though most 
of the camels come out laden anew, some of them issue bare. And so it is with 
the horses, and especially with the donkeys. Whole swarms of donkeys enter 
loaded with mud and wood or food, and then issue with nothing. No less signifi- 
cant are the dust-clouded flocks of sheep and goats driven slowly into the arched 
gates, for but few of them ever come out again. Within the city, houses are build- 
ing of the mud, and some of the wood is entering their construction, as steel does 
with our concrete; while some of it is used in manufactures, and the rest for fire- 
wood. Of all the food, practically none comes out; almost all ultimately finds 
its way to refuse piles and holes. And of articles of merchandise, all that is used 
therein remains as a surplus of income over outflow of that class, and becomes a 





Fig. 468.—Construction of a House in the Hissar Valley. 


deposition of rubbish. As long as the city lives, there is an inflowing supply of 
food for its occupants, and raw material to replenish the decay of their houses and 
supply their useful arts. The deposition of that inflow is spread more or less 
evenly throughout the city or whole walled area and must in time result in an 
appreciable growth. That such a growth does and did result is evidenced by 
plateaus of stratified débris that rise from out the plains where ancient cities were. 
From exposures in gullies and trenches, we have found that these are composed 
of horizontal layers of clay with pottery, bones, and charcoal, and here and there 
the basal remnant of a wall with part of an old floor. 

Seen far out on the desert plains, where they most abound, these plateaus 
are unmistakable. And any one who has thought about topography can not 
fail to recognize them, even though the land be one of high relief. Even when 
much modified by erosion, as are the older ones, they still rise as contradictions 
to surrounding forms until obliterated by weathering or burial. It can not, how- 
ever, be assumed that all artificial mounds are records of slow growth from occu- 
pation, even though left by man, for in the past he heaped mounds over the dead 


OASES. 3O0I 


and, in more recent ages, deliberately built them for citadels. It is often possible 
to recognize in gully sections what kind of a mound one is dealing with. 

In diverting rivers and streams to irrigate wide areas of cultivation, man 
has been a director of alluvial depositions. 

In general, it was found that mound remnants of occupation are numerous 
over all areas, both of alluvial clays and of loess, that were accessible to running 
water; that is, the ancients made their cities and towns wherever there was water 
to drink and flat clay or loess ground to build on and of. On the other hand, all 
areas of stony steppe, where there was no clay for vegetation or building mate- 
rial, are barren of these remains. 

Knowing that ancient oases are to be looked for and how their remains appear, 
the next two questions that rise are, first, where to look, and second, what chance 
is there of anything very ancient still remaining? 





Fig. 469.—A Ruined Citadel on the Lower Zerafshan. 


PHYSIOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION OF OASES. 


Before answering these questions it is important to understand the present 
distribution of oases and cast them into a type classification based on natural 
forces and their products with man. Such a physiographic classification results 
in five types remarkably distinct in their reactions upon civilization. 

(I) Delta Oases: (a) of rivers; (b) of small streams. 
(II) River-bank and flood-plain oases. 
(III) High-valley oases. 
(IV) Spring and well oases. 

(V) Lake-shore oases. 

Examples of all five are still to be found in their full life. At the ends of the 
Murg-ab and Zerafshan lie Merv and Bokhara, our two best examples of type Ia, 
while type Ib is found all along the edge of Central Asia’s desert plains, where 
small streams discharge from the border of its inclosing ranges. The important 
difference between Ia and Ib lies in the effect of climatic change. Oscillating 
degrees of precipitation over the catch-basins of larger rivers involve a correspond- 
ing oscillation of the distances to which they penetrate the desert, so that the 
positions of type Ia were ever shifted out and back, whereas smaller streams, 


302 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


those supplying type Ib, as long as they reached the plains, could effect no more 
than a corresponding oscillation in magnitude of population. Moreover, type 
Ia was always far more in danger cf being overwhelmed by sand. 

Type II, river-bank and flood-plain oases occur along the courses of large 
streams, especially the Zerafshan. Type I is thus, to a certain degree, at the 
mercy of type II, in danger of losing part or all of its water-supply to pirating 
canals tapping the river above. Type II is relatively unaffected by climatic change 
till extreme contraction leaves it beside a dry channel. But warping of the earth’s 
crust has in some instances, such as Samarkand, seriously affected type II. Both 
type I and type II are relatively exposed to invasion by hostile people. 

Type III, or high-valley oases, are common throughout the mountains of 
Central Asia. Lying for the most part on the terraces of large valleys, they 
depend on small tributaries for water-supply. Their irrigable area being limited 
by the terraced nature of their topography, this type of oasis has in general com- 
manded an excess of water-supply and probably supported a relatively constant 
population and in their isolated conditions must have produced marked individu- 
alities of culture in a civilization left to work itself out through a long series of 
unmolested generations. 

Type IV.—Examples of both spring and well oases are still to be found far 
out on desert plains among the sand-dunes, as well as at rare intervals in the moun- 
tain wilderness. Few of them are more than nomadic camps or mere caravan 
stations on long trails of trade, and though real self-supporting centers of life in 
an otherwise lifeless region, some people would deny them the name of oasis. 
There is, however, a remarkable kind of spring oasis, really of artificial springs, 
that has been of great importance, especially in Persia and along the Persian 
frontier of the Turkoman Steppes. There it has been contrived to tap ground- 
water at the base of the mountains with a series of shafts connected by tunnels, 
leading it ever nearer the sloping surface of the plain until it is discharged at the 
oasis. The city of Askhabad, capital of Transcaspia, and many others along that 
belt, as well as farther east, are examples of such artificial spring oases. It is an 
old Persian method, doubtless introduced during the early Persian rule of this 
region, and is known as the Carice system. 

Type V.—Mr. Huntington visited lake-shore oases in Persia. Theoretically 
it is a type of great interest. We hope that future exploration may disclose the 
mound remnants of oases on now dry shores of the ancient Aralo-Caspian Sea and 
vanished lakes that lay towards the Arctic. Modern science has developed a new 
kind of lake-shore oasis, that on salt-water shores. Baku and Krasnovodsk are 
extraordinary examples of this class. All their water is distilled from the Caspian 
and there is every reason to suppose that other cities will be founded on their plan 
along the coasts of interior seas of brackish water. To what extent the ancients 
irrigated fresh-water lake-shore oases, we know not as yet; but there is no reason 
to suppose that irrigation was not carried on by them over flat areas near water- 


level in the same way in which Egypt has for many thousand years watered the 
flood-plains of the Nile. 


OASES. 303 


The five types of oases behave in different ways toward the questions as to 
their early distribution and what antiquity may be discovered. It is obvious 
that all streams, and even valleys now dry and their possible prolongations on the 
plains, should be explored for remains of types I, II, and III. The possible dis- 
tribution of type IV is more indefinite. They may have existed on almost any 
steppe of clay or loess, even where now invaded by dunes. Obviously, type V 
should be explored for on all lake-shores, even where no lake exists to-day. 


RELATIONS BETWEEN EROSION AND BURIAL IN THE OBLITERATION OF KURGANS 
(OASIS CULTURE DEPOSITS). 


The chances of finding culture mounds more than a few thousand years old 
seem relatively slight. Under the arid conditions of most of Central Asia, mounds 
are bare of vegetation and stand windswept with no protection from the wear of 
sandstorms. They are no more than naked heaps of unresistant clay, of which 
the round-worn forms of those more ancient stand evidence of fast withering by 
wind. During our work at Ghiaur Kala there was a sandstorm of such strength 
that stones 2 inches across were bounded along and smaller ones driven through 
the air with a blast of fine stuff scoured off the mound. Fortunately such storms 
are rare, for if they came often all our older mounds would long since have dis- 
appeared. Every time a desert rain falls it wears the mound away to best advan- 
tage; and lastly but not least, anything upon aggrading ground must in time be 
buried out of sight. Obviously most of the important oases were on delta plains 
and flood-plains that were always aggrading through year after year of muddy 
floods and irrigation. 

Any discussion, therefore, about ancient oases, abandoned or occupied, must 
balance the effect of erosion and natural burial upon their remains. Sometimes 
we can be sure that no growth of the plain around has taken place, and in some 
more rare instances we know there has been protection against erosion. The most 
important remains, however, have been subjected to both. The problem then 
arises, how to deal with a time-equation into which there enter three rates— 
growth of plain, growth of culture, and erosion. We believe that in a given region 
these have fairly constant values when expressed in terms of centuries. Without 
pretending to get ultimately accurate results, we can give at least a logical 
expression of the relations between these different rates through time. Indeed, 
without keeping the problem in logical proportions, we could never hope to under- 
stand either the relative rarity or distribution of really ancient remains. 


Let ¢=number of centuries since a city was founded. 
/=number of centuries it was occupied. 
G=culture growth per century. 
A =aggradation of plains per century. 
FE =erosion per century. 
h=height above plain at any time. 


If the mound is still occupied and has been from the beginning, its height 
will obviously be h=l1G—At; and since in that case /=t, h=t(G—A), or the 


304 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


number of centuries since it was founded, times the difference between its rate of 
accumulation and the rate of surrounding aggradation. If, as has been with 
many excepting those of type I, it was away from aggradation, its height would 
be simply /G. 

Most of the oases that interest us have long since been abandoned and erosion 
enters the equation; then h=/G—[E(t—l)+At], or total thickness of culture, 
minus erosion since abandonment and amount the plain has arisen around it. 
But obviously the plain will in time rise to bury the eroding top. Let ¢,=time at 
which erosion will meet aggradation (time of total burial), then h=o and 1G= 


E(t,—1) + At, and poe and the first equation kh =I1G—[E (t—l) + Af] is true 
GEE 
only when ¢ is less than / - ALE 


Residual height 
=1G6-[t At(t-1)E] 





(t-1)E ZZLZLL2, 
7 




















Fig. 470.—Diagram showing Relation between Erosion and Burial of Abandoned Kurgans. 
Cross-hatching represents wasted top of Kurgan. 


G+E 

A+E 

After that burial takes place, and the depth to which the top is buried at any time 
will be: 


(1) h=1G—[E (t—l) +At] when t<l 


G+E 
(2) d=A 15 7 te when t> he Gay 


or the rate of aggradation multiplied by the time since foundation minus the time 
that elapsed between then and the beginning of burial. 

Changing the equation of obliteration somewhat in form, we get our third 
and most important equation. 


(3) 1+ 2 when h=o 


which means that on aggrading areas any town, not occupied more than the ratio 


eee +e times the number of centuries since it was founded, has vanished from sight 


beneath the aggrading plain. The depth to which the eroded top of its accumula- 
tion has been buried can be found from equation (2). 

Assuming Professor Pumpelly’s values obtained at Anau, we have G=2 and 
A =o.8, and since it is from erosion the growth of plains is supplied and since the 
areas of erosion and aggradation seem to correspond in a general way and our cul- 
ture mounds probably erode as fast as anything, we may for experiment assume 


o ef. A+E 1.6 
E=A or E=o.8. Then Conese 


error than equation E = A, because E partly compensates itself by division. 


=0.57 as a conservative ratio of much less 


OASES. 305 


_ It may, therefore, be said that the kurgan remains of most favored oases, 
those where water was easily led and found its way in flood, have been eroded and 
buried, wholly obliterated unless they were occupied over 0.57 of the time since 
their foundation. Or, any such city, founded 5,000 years ago and not occupied 
at least 3,000 years, has vanished. Such must have been the fate of those where 
the plains are always aggrading; but along the borders in the region of uptilting 
piedmonts, where oases of type 1b and type IV abound, aggradation was apparently 
so counteracted by crustal movement that during dry periods some areas rose 
above it altogether. It is to that process we owe the preservation above ground 
of both kurgans at Anau. The piedmont on which they rest appears to have been 
uplifted so nearly as fast as the plain aggraded that during all of 10,000 years no 
more than 20 feet of sediments has risen around the North Kurgan, though during 
that time it seems likely that about 80 feet have been deposited farther out in the 
desert. As a check upon the logic of our equations, it is interesting to solve for 
occupation on the North Kurgan. Knowing the total remnantthickness of culture, 
60 feet, and assuming Professor Pumpelly’s estimate of time since foundation, 100 
centuries, we have: taking the remnant height, h=!1G—E (t—l), 64=1 X 2—0.8 
(100—1/) or 2.8/=144 and /=51.5 centuries. Then its original thickness, /G, 
would have been 2 X 51.5 =103 feet, of which it has lost by erosion 43 feet. This, 
taken in view of the deformation testified by its profile, the upper part having 
withered to a rounded form leaving a base under ground of twice the diameter of 
that above ground, seems a conservative estimate. There is, however, no reason 
to suppose that it had ever attained a thickness of 103 feet at any one time. This 
accumulation may have resulted during several periods of occupation, between 
which it was abandoned to erosion. That part of its growth was during reoccupa- 
tion of comparatively recent times is evidenced by quantities of late pottery and 
débris, deep-buried in the wash under its surrounding plain, having drifted down 
there from above, though now absent on top. 

An examination of the surface and gully-sections of 20 or 30 kurgans on the 
zone of constant aggradation, revealed no indication of anything over 1,000 to 3,000 
years old, and such was Mr. Huntington’s experience in his study of 20 or more 
kurgans north of Merv. To one having a general idea about rates of erosion and 
aggradation in this region, it is no surprise that nearly all the kurgans of Central 
Asia seem to belong in the last 2,000 or 3,000 years. ‘There can be very few as old 
as the North Kurgan at Anau still above ground. 

But the very fact that Central Asia has been progressively drying up has 
helped prevent a universal burial of oases of type Ia, those on far-out deltas, 
because streams and their canals contracted, leaving their oases beyond both water 
supply and sedimentation. Many kurgans, then, still rise above the desert for the 
very reason for which they were abandoned. Another set-back against burial 
has been warping. The region of Samarkand has been warped into a low dome 
about 40 miles across, through which the Zerafshan distributaries—many of them 
artificial—have cut their channels to a depth of 50 to roo feet in the highest or 
middle part, some of them reuniting beyond. Now, it is only with canals many 


306 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


miles long that water can be led onto the old plateau and on such a gentle grade 
that scarcely any sediments are introduced, so that the surface there to-day is 
practically that of antiquity, the uplifted and dissected horizon of many thousand 
years ago. 

Type III or high-valley oases, because of their position on terraces high above 
the river, have perhaps been most free from natural burial; and owing to isolation 
from hostile tribes and their excess of water-supply, were less often abandoned to 
erosion. 

Favorable topography, crustal movement, and shrinkage of alluvially active 
areas have thus conspired against a universal burial, but we still face erosion. 
The question is, what is the reason why Nature’s wind and water have not alto- 
gether obliterated whatever she left unburied? It can not be from absence of the 
agencies of erosion; they are universal. There must have been protection. We 
have seen in the equation h=/ G—[E(t—l)+At] that as long ast< ress there 
is still a discoverable remnant. If /=1#, that is, if the kurgan is still occupied and 
never was abandoned, then the factor E(t{—/) =o. That is, no erosion has taken 
place. For several reasons, climatic and protective, it has always been advan- 


tageous to reoccupy old culture-mounds. In other words, the value of / was from 
time to time increased and so the time necessary for obliteration, eireaat 
increased whether E alone was involved and A =o, or when A alone was involved 
and & =o, or when both together were involved. 

In a grassy region the value of E is greatly diminished and vanishes altogether 
where loess is precipitated. Such a region is found in the wide Hissar valley, 
where kurgans are mantled with a foot or more of loess and the great citadel of 
Hissar itself, rising about 100 feet above the plain, stands as evidence of that pro- 
tection. It is not unlikely that other kurgans, now bare, were once favored with 
grass. And there is one other protective agency that has played an important 
role in the preservation of ruins to discovery; and that is flying sands. In Chinese 
Turkestan many cities have been reexposed by the shifting dunes that swallowed 
them over a thousand years ago. Such must have been the fate of most of type 
Ia, or far-out delta-oases. 

But do not be too encouraged by this display of protections against oblit- 
eration. We still must face the fact that few remains of very great antiquity 
have as yet been found. Erosion and aggradation have done their work and, 
where time allowed, have successfully obliterated. Whatever may be their actual 
values in any given region, the agencies of Nature, where continuous, have com- 
G+ 
ATE 
believe that most of what they have buried shall remain to us unseen. And high- 
valley oases, type III, though in other ways more favored, had to be on or near 
the edge of such steep slopes and receding canyon walls that many of them have 
been long since blown and washed away or caved into their valley torrents. On 


pleted the task in ¢, =/ And though flying sands have preserved, we must 


OASES. 307 


the highlands streams are ever and anon accelerated by mountain uplift and their 
valleys changed so fast that with them some topography, once inhabited, exists no 
more; while the plains, where habitable because of river water, must with that 
water receive its sediments, so that with them the horizons of antiquity lie buried. 

Such are the problems to be faced in exploration for the oases of antiquity 
and interpretation of what remains of their culture depositions. And although 
so little of what once has been can still be found, there seem great chances in what 
is left, especially when one year’s exploration has revealed thus much of the remote 
past. 

If the caves of Central Asia were occupied by early man as in Europe, still 
more ancient records may be looked for in them. 


THE ANCIENT ALAI VALLEY ROUTE FROM BACTRA TO KASHGAR. 


After communication was established between oases, trade routes and their 
intersections must have had an influence so important that it becomes necessary 
to find out all we can about them. Asa contribution, I may be able to give new 
light on one of the ancient ways between Bactria and China. This will be purely 
objective evidence from observations on a journey over that route from Hissar 
to Kashgar. 


OBJECTIVE CRITERIA OF ANCIENT LONG-USED ROUTES. 


The question arises, how is it to be decided which of several routes was the 
important one? Must it remain a purely theoretical discussion, based on maps, 
traditions and writings, or are there objective criteria by which the traveler may 
recognize an ancient, long-used route of trade? There is reason to believe that 
all important trails of antiquity were, where crossing mountains, well-engineered 
with bridges and embankments, long rock-cuttings in cliffs and declivities, and 
carefully drained fillings where intersected by gulches. We should expect that 
steep ascents were, if possible, avoided by zigzagging grades and otherwise eased 
by long flights of steps hewn in the rock, while certain passes and defiles as well 
as stopping-places were fortified. Moreover, any trail long used must have worn 
deep into loess steppes where they were crossed, and even into bare rock. Of 
all this there should remain a recognizable trace. It is hard for Nature to obliterate 
long trenches worn in her loess plateaus, and harder still to wear away hoof-worn 
paths in rock and long cuts hewn midway up high cliffs. Where crossing aggrading 
plains and deserts of sand, there would be no marks except for caravansaries or 
fortresses, clay structures that fast crumble to low mounds and are soon buried 
in drifting dunes or obliterated by the growth of plains. Fortunately the nature 
of Central Asia has been such that few important routes could have been wholly 
on aggrading ground or drifting dunes. 


THE CONTROLLING FACTORS OF TRADE ROUTES. 


Trade routes are determined by three controlling factors, (1) needs of trade, 
(2) natural conditions, and (3) attitude of intervening peoples; and not only 
were they determined by these three factors but they also depended on them 


308 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


for existence and shifted or died out at the hand of their change. Needs of 
exchange were always changing in degree and kind; new centers of trade were 
ever springing up and newly discovered routes opened in competition. Scores of 
miles of trail and sometimes whole routes were shifted by the work of rivers and 
avalanches, and others abandoned for lack of water and decrease of fodder during 
cycles of desiccation. And history and tradition and Oriental romance have 
emphasized how robber khans and nomad tribes made raid and others levied 
toll on passing caravans. It is easy to draw a line on the map, but quite another 
matter to follow it out in reality with pack-animals that can neither fly over 
canyons nor live without fodder and water, neither scale mountains nor swim 
bad rapids, nor pass unknown to watchful enemies; and it is hard enough to make 
such a risky enterprise profitable by having the right merchandise for the right 


market. 
ADVANTAGES OF THE ALAI VALLEY ROUTE. 


It is no surprise that within historic time there has been much shifting of 
the main trade-way between far East and West. Whether or not some of Bactria’s 
early trade passed over the Southern Pamir by way of Tash Kurgan to China, 
it does not seem likely that the much-spoken-of Terek Davan route to the north 
was ever of great importance. On it there are eight passes to be crossed within 
a distance of 250 miles—eight passes, most of them involving a steep rise of over 
2,000 feet, and to cross the Terek itself from the north, one must climb 6,000 feet 
in one day, all in less than 12 miles, 5 of which are up the bowlder-strewn bed of 
a torrent in which many a pack-horse has stumbled to drown. Of all the passes 
I crossed during 2,000 miles of travel through those mountains, the Terek Davan 
stands out as one of the two or three worst, not so much because of its height 
(13,500 feet, which is perhaps low for passes on those high ranges), but because 
of bad trail, or rather the utter lack of trail over many miles, especially on its 
northern side. Moreover, there is no indication of its ever having had a good trail 
or any trail at all. 

Beyond Irkeshtam (going westward), where it branches from the Alai valley 
route, there is on the Terek trail no trace of what we should expect to find on an 
important pathway of antiquity, no resemblance to one’s expectations of a one- 
time main way from Bactria to China. Beyond this junction there is no remnant 
stretch of graded way or cliff-cut, nor hoof-worn path in rock or loess, nor sign 
that ever caravansary or castle stood upon it. Though with their railroad built 
to Andijan and the military post at Irkeshtam, the Russians have had to better 
it as much as possible; it is still a decidedly bad trail. If such a route was used 
for Bactrian caravans instead of that through the Alai valley, over all its length 
contrasting in goodness, whole mountains must have heaved and gorges carved 
since then. 

From Kashgar to Bactra, via the Alai valley and Hissar, is only 600 miles, 
all of it good trail, well-engineered, and over 300 miles shorter than via the Terek 
Davan and Iron Door—3oo miles shorter, or but two-thirds of the distance by 
the other, and so good that, with a little improvement at a few points, light artillery 


OASES. 309 


could pass all the way. Moreover, there is no doubt about the Alai valley route 
having been one of long use. The ruins of its caravansaries and fortresses still 
remain beside its time-worn paths still followed by Afghan caravans and travelers. 
On it there are but three passes, none of them at all bad; and fully one-third the 
way lies over steppe, most of the rest along smooth, broad terraces such as those 
of the Kizil Su. Nowhere is there lack of water, and beyond the borders of Tarim, 
that all these routes must cross, it lies throughout in a region of remarkably good 
grazing. Lastly, it is perhaps the easiest route of all to police. 

The worst stretch is from Kashgar to Irkeshtam, over which it is one with the 
Terek route that branches off at that point. Through these first five days it leads 
over a desert of low red mountains, sharply sculptured in a gently rising plateau, 
as with the Western Bad Lands of the United States. There, as farther on, were 
seen long hoof-worn trenches in hard sandstone and notches worn 6 and 8 feet 
deep into ledge ridges crossed by it. At Ming Yole and Ulugchat the traveler 
still puts up in fortified cereis and at Shur Bulak Pass must ride through the 





Fig. 471.—A Fortress in the Alai Valley on the Ancient Route from Bactra to Kashgar. 


battered gate and wall that crosses its defile beside a ruined castle. One day 
from Irkeshtam leads over the Taun Murun, its last and highest pass, but only 
11,200 feet in elevation, easily crossed, and down into the Alai valley, famous for 
its pasture. From there on for 100 miles this valley opens out a restful stretch 
for the caravan. In it there is still a ruined fortress, the relatively modern struc- 
ture at Daraut Kurgan, where a trail branches off into Fergana. Leaving the 
Alai valley, it continues along the Kizil Su through Karategin, as a well-engineered 
way where engineering was needed, but most of the way in this region is along 
broad, smooth terraces. The next ruined fortress is met with at Haui. Others 
may have been obliterated, but, as with the Alai valley, the valley of Karategin 
is so isolated, except for the route in question, that it is not likely they had to 
fortify its caravansaries. From there we enter the lands of ancient Bactria and 
find the trail worn sometimes 40 feet into loess steppes leading down to old Hissar. 
What kind of trail it is from Hissar to Bactra must be judged from maps, as I did 
not follow over that part. On a large-scale Russian map it follows south along 
the flat bottom of a valley to the Oxus, and beyond the ferry it lies in open country 
a few miles to the end. 


310 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


There is, therefore, reason to believe that at one time the famous way from 
China to Bactria lay along the Alai valley and past Hissar, which city may have 
owed its importance to it. Moreover, there is a well-engineered trail from Hissar 
over the Mura Pass to Samarkand, and another one to Bokhara or Pai-kent, which 
would make at Hissar a point of intersection of three important routes. This 
would not interfere with the idea that direct communication between Bactra and 
Samarkand took place via the Iron Door. Perhaps it varied with the attitude of 
intervening people. And the Tash Kurgan route over the Southern Pamir may 
have been used for communication between Southern Bactria and China, while 
the more important trade of Bactra itself passed direct by way of the Alai valley. 





Fig. 472.—Ruins of the Tomb of Bibi Khanum (Samarkand). 


OASES OF THE ZERAFSHAN. 


RIVER-BANK (TYPE II) OASES OF THE LOWER ZERAFSHAN. 


Having been a river fed almost exclusively by glaciers for all archeological 
time, the Zerafshan has necessarily given a fairly constant supply of water—that 
is, its oases were never affected by the sudden droughts and minor oscillations of 
precipitation that ever and anon wrought famine to oases depending on streams 
fed by unconsolidated snow or rain. 

Everywhere along its lower course and beyond the limits of its now living 
oases, rise the mound remnants of past civilization. From Paikent to Samarkand 
is a land no less favored than the long stretch of the Jaxartes where there was an 
unbroken belt of gardens, of whose houses it is said the roofs were so joined through 
continuous villages of covered-over lanes that a cat might find his way throughout 
and never come to ground. Even now, for 200 miles along the Zerafshan it is 
mostly oasis, though crept upon by intervening deserts, and still stands unparal- 
leled in Central Asia. Such a gifted land was naturally preyed upon by the 
plundering hordes that ranged the steppes of Asia from Manchuria to the Caspian, 
and enters history as a goal of conquering armies. Even now the story-tellers of 


OASES. jit 


its bazaars recite the feats of Iskander (Alexander), Genghis Khan, and Timur; 
and from the foliage of Samarkand, once capital of that last world-conqueror, 
still rise glittering faience domes and towers, the earthquake-shattered ruins of 
his colleges and tombs. 

AFROSIAB. 


Just to the east of this old city of Timur and on a loess plateau about 70 
feet above the big Obu Siob, bounding it north and east, lie the ruins of Afrosiab, 
still more ancient Samarkand. Tradition tells us this was founded by a Persian, 
Prince Afrosiab, while some believe it to have been the Maracanda cf Alexander. 
Its great areas of ruins have crumbled to a barren surface of low mounds with 
several depressions connected by canals and moats, the remnants of a water-system. 
Water entered from the south and split into secondary canals, two of which ran 
just outside the inner walls, those south of its citadel, to supply various neigh- 
boring basins. The surplus of these two emptied into the Obu Siocb on the north, 
at a level about 15 feet higher than the Obu Siob water of to-day, as though the 
canal had deepened 15 feet since these tributaries were abandoned. It was hoped 


CULTURE DEBRIS ZOFEEr DEEP DRY CANALS 






VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL SCALE 
2 800 1000 FEET 


Fig. 473.—Profile of Afrosiab. 

that some light on the antiquity, and especially on the introduction, of glazed 
ware might come from a study of gully sections through its culture remains. This 
work proved difficult, if not impossible, without excavation. In the gullies two 
habits have conspired against reliable sections; first, creeping down of muddy 
débris during wet weather; and second, refilling cf narrow parts choked up in 
various ways, after which reexcavation leaves sections of washed-down débris in 
which all horizons of the culture-strata are mixed together. Some gullies, 30 feet 
in depth, are so narrow from top to bottom that when a wall caves in, refilling 
takes place behind. The large gully running to the Obu Sicb canal opposite the 
mill widens and deepens downwards with several terraces, and has been artificially 
dammed across at regular intervals, thus refilling to form cross-terraces that are 
cultivated. Reexcavation of this valley would leave sections of most unreliable 
data. But though unreliable in general, there are a few gully sections in Afrosiab 
that give clean exposures of undisturbed strata. In two or three, through its 
central plateau of débris there appears to be a total depth of 30 to 35 feet of 
culture-strata resting on the original loess foundation. Through its northern wall 
along the Obu Siob cliff a tunneling gully shows the culture débris thinning out 
to but a few feet in thickness. 


HIGH-VALLEY (TYPE III) OASES OF THE UPPER ZERAFSHAN. 


So often conquered and swept by migrating hordes, the lowland oases of the 
Zerafshan now present a mixture of races, though according to the ethnologist 
there is still a predominance of Tadjik, excepting perhaps in Bokhara. And this 
mixture continues some way up into the mountain valley, where for about 16 


312 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


miles from its entrance the traveler meets with Usbeg camps of felt kibitkas 
side by side the Tadjik villages. The last kibitka is passed below Iori, above which 
the type strengthens into a pure Tadjik; and, as my Tadjik caravan men testified, 





Fig. 475.—A High Valley Oasis of the Zerafshan Gorge. 


all speak a good Galcha, a language said by philologists to be a pure remnant of 
Aryan. ‘They are broad-shouldered, of medium stature, averaging something like 
5 feet 9 inches, usually with black hair, bushy black beards, dark eyes, and clean- 


OASES. 213 


cut features of dark complexion, high foreheads, strong chins, and prominent 
noses. If it were not for their dark complexions, many of them would pass for 
Europeans. Some are lighter in complexion and some freckled, and one or two 
were seen with reddish hair and blue eyes. They live in houses grouped into village 
oases, the high-valley type, from 200 to 600 feet above the river, where the waters 
of tributary streams may be diverted for irrigation. Standing in contrast to the 
desolate slopes of barren rock that surround them, these oases with their gardens 
and apricot orchards and grain-fields are a welcome sight to the traveler who has 
struggled over miles of the rough trails that wind up their desert gorge. Lying as 
they do, surrounded by a wilderness of cliffs and bare declivities, each is isolated 
and self-supporting, separated from the next by miles of dangerous trail often cut 
as a half-tunnel in the canyon wall hundreds of feet above its river; and there are 
long rock-hewn flights of steps up which pack-animals must struggle. Sometimes 
the cliff-cuts were so narrow and low-roofed that our packs had to be taken off 
and carried by hand. 

For about a hundred miles above Samarkand all houses are built of sun- 
burnt brick. They are rectangular in plan and sometimes two-storied, with a 
courtyard for the horses and stalls on the ground floor; but most of them are 





Fig. 476.—A Village built of Cobble-stones laid with Sun-dried Brick (Zerafshan Gorge). 


smaller and only one-storied, about 8 feet high. All have flat roofs of ordinarily 
8 inches of clay over brush laid on split saplings and hewn timbers. Proceeding 
upstream we find occasional courses of cobbles built into the house walls, and the 
proportion increases as we proceed till in the upper part of the valley we see houses 
built entirely of cobbles, cemented with clay, while even this cement is lacking in 
the last two or three villages near its glacier, where many of them are mere squalid 
huts with rounded corners and brush roofs, usually protected with felt. 

An important fact about these people is that they have no tradition of arrival 
in the land, but boast of having been there from the beginning of man. All the 
old mullahs questioned insisted upon this, and it points to a very ancient Aryan 
civilization of the valley. For thousands on thousands of years they may have 
lived there, undisturbed and isolated from the rest of Asia, building up a simple 
civilization uninterrupted, hardly feeling an echo from the tumultuous struggles 
that so often destroyed all culture on the plains. 


314 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


The mullahs say their forefathers were Christians, but were conquered by a 
great Mussulman general, Hodja Mussaii Ashari, who came over the Mura Pass 
from Hissar a thousand years ago. 

There are comparatively few abandoned culture-mounds in the mountain 
valley, but many of its oases appear to lie on a considerable thickness of accumu- 
lated débris; in other words, most of the village sites of antiquity there are still 
occupied, whereas most of those on the plains have been abandoned. ‘This differ- 
ence is a good illustration of the characteristic distinctions of high-valley oases, 
type III, especially the difference of water-supply and degree of exposure to hostile 
people. Towns on the plains were from time to time abandoned for lack of water 
as their distributary streams con- 
tracted because of a general pro- 
gressive desiccation of Central 
Asia, and others were destroyed 
by armies that plundered and 
passed on, leaving their ruins to 
the desert. Still others may have 
lost their water to pirating canals 
of other oases. Most of the oases 
of the high valley have always 
had an excess of water-supply, 
their size being limited by topog- 
raphy only, and their inaccessi- 
bility hasalways been a protection 
against invasion; one man can 
guard a trail in the Zerafshan. 

In many of the towns débris 
of occupation has accumulated in 
the form of terraces, in successive 
steps from 4 to 6 feet high, down 
slopes of the old alluvial terraces 
and doubtless extending toadepth 
of several feet below. The thick- 

Fig. 477.—Zerafshan Galcha Spinning at Yarum. ness varies from town to town, 
according to the amount of sediments in the waters drawn upon for irrigation, 
the proportion of stone used in construction, and the time of occupation. The 
few abandoned sites observed are in positions relatively more exposed to neigh- 
boring oases and intersecting routes. Their positions were evidently chosen as 
the easiest to fortify in their neighborhoods, and, in some cases, seem to have 
been abandoned for other points nearby that are agriculturally more advantageous. 
Of abandoned villages there are three of especial interest: One at Iori, one at 
Urmitan, and one at Kadushar (figs. 481-483). 

Iori Kurgan (fig. 481) is an old citadel, about 100 feet by 200 feet long, running 
north and south and resting on gypsum beds rising from the eastern edge of a 





PLATE 64. 














tee? ne ROM 


Kara tepe (eastern) 


ae 


Shallpast Kurgan 


ae ee eee 











Seepandsh tepe (near Djisak) Kalia tepe (near Djisak ) 
Kizil-ar tepe (near Djisak) Kurgan near Djisak station 
Kurgan near Djiseak station Kurgan near Djisak station 










Wi m eae MTUTT) LTT Ty 
Remains of walls 10feet high 
SUUIO UU UP ily, 


Dshisak = Djisak 


















Plain O to2 feet 


Tritt VT} 


CHC 


600 feet 


Plan of Kara Tepe (western) 
(near Obruchevo station) 





View of Eeman Tepe. Citadel of Kara Tepe (Western) taken from northwest. 


Type-forms of Kurgans in Fergana. 


~~ 


Pe 


“ 





OASES. B15 


tributary delta descending onto the Zerafshan’s great lower terrace. It is a mass 
of remarkably rich culture remains, about 25 feet thick, and composed of sun- 
burnt bricks, ashes, and bones, and very much pottery well exposed in pits dug 
out for fertilizer. Three kinds of pottery were found—two of fine red texture, 
wheel-turned, of which one was dull and the other polished, the third kind a large, 
coarse, brown jar. One piece of glass was found 5 feet below the top. 

Urmitan Kurgan, though small, becomes of interest in its relations to Zeraf- 
shan terraces and the tributary Vaushan Darya. Standing in an easily fortified 
position on the southern side of the canyon, it rises somewhat above the level of 
terrace G, from which it appears to have been partly severed by erosion since it 
was abandoned (see fig. 482). A portion of the Vaushan Darya’s flood-plain of 
a higher terrace age, belonging to the ultimate height of alluviation at the close 
of the Zerafshan’s second cycle of erosion, has now been cut down on both sides, 








Fig. 478,—Zerafshan Galchas near the Glacier. 


leaving a remainder standing as a high inclined table at that tributary’s valley 
mouth. ‘There still remains a shallow channel, once occupied by Vaushan water, 
leading to the kurgan, but now the Vaushan debouches into the Zerafshan through 
a canyon in terrace G on the other side of the ancient table. 

Kodishar Kurgan (fig. 483), or the ruins of ancient Kodishar, is physiographic- 
ally by far the most interesting abandoned oasis of the valley. Lying on terrace 
G and just outside the present oasis, it is bounded on two sides by an impassable 
cliff of the meandering canyon, while round the other two it is bounded by a triple 
row of moats, ranged one within the other. Altogether its ruins cover about 
100,000 square feet, with about 4 feet depth of culture remains, composed of clay- 
mixed cobbles rich in pottery, both glazed and not glazed, with some glass and 
iron fragments. ‘Tradition places it over a thousand years old and mullahs say 
the Zerafshan flowed on a level with it, splitting through its moats then spanned 


316 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


by bridges. Besides stone implements other slabs were found to have Arabic 
inscriptions, but without dates, one of our men being able to read them with some 
difficulty. 


Its moats and the native tra- 
dition that the Zerafshan once 
flowed through them make Kodi- 
shar Kurgan of interest. If we 
grant truth to this tradition, there 
are two possibilities; water may 
have stood at this level because of 
a landslide across the canyon or 
because the river then had not cut 
down below terrace G. Although 
there are remains of landslides 
that appear to have wrought a 
comparable change in other por- 
tions of the valley, no such re- 

Fig. 479.—Zerafshan Galchas (Gentlemen). mains are found near Kodishar. 
Perhaps the chances are in favor of a landslide, but it seems barely possible that the 
Zerafshan, now so actively corrading, has cut down its narrow channel to a depth 
of 280 feet in say 2,000 years, but that would be 1.5 inches per year. 





HISSAR. 


In discussing the natural processes of obliteration, the remarkable height of 
the citadel of Old Hissar was attributed in part to a mantle of loess protecting 
it from erosion. It 
rises to a height of 
100 feet or more, in : > . 
the form of a crouch- 
ing lion facing east. 
A part of its highest 
end (the eastern) 
is occupied by the 
palace of the vice- 
roy (koshbegee), 
while the rest is bare 
except for hisstables. 
Culture-strata of 
loess mixed with 
pottery, bones, and 
charcoal are exposed 
to a depth of 20 feet 
in a pit on its western half. It is possible that a portion of its roo-feet thickness 
above ground is composed of loess deposited during periods of abandonment, 


7 





Fig. 480.—Zerafshan Galcha with his Plow. 


OASES. 24 


but that would not detract from the antiquity of its deep layers. The base of 
culture may be at a considerable depth beneath the plain. Hissar was probably 
a city of importance when Bactrian trade with China came past it via the Alai 
valley. Suitable presents to the viceroy would make it possible to dig there, and 
labor is only 35 cents a day (fig. 484). 

There are many small kurgans and remains of ancient fortifications, canals, 
and dikes in the Hissar valley. 


ABANDONED OASES OF FERGANA. 


A rapid reconnaissance of chances for excavation in Fergana was made by. 
stopping at intervals along the railroad in a private car, lent through the kindness 
of General Ussakovsky and General Ulianin. 

Near Osh there are two small mounds with no surface indication of culture 
remains. No others were seen in that region and its natives say there are none, 
There is a kurgan at Marghelan, but west of there it is not until the railroad strikes 











Fig. 481.—loni Kurgan. 


loess steppe near the kurgan Karaul Tepe, between Balyakandose and Rojevat, 
that kurgans are seen from it. As Kavast junction with the Tashkent Railroad 
is approached they become numerous, and from there on to Samarkand abound, 
because the area is all loess. The following sketch outlines are typical ones selected 
from a larger number. As their forms are in general rounded, it would seem that 
few of these kurgans are not so recent as those for instance on the Murg-ab delta; 
and it seems possible, since it is a region of uptilted piedmonts, there may be 
examples of great antiquity among them, though only one (Kara Tepe, western) 
of those examined was free from glazed ware on the surface. 

Four of these—Kara Tepe (western), Eeman Tepe, and two river-cut mounds 
at Millitinskaya—deserve special mention; the first two because of their great size, 
the second two (fig. 485) because of their physiography. 


KARA TEPE (WESTERN). 


Kara Tepe (western) lies a few hundred feet south of the railroad, a little over 
1.5 miles west of Obruchevo Station. Its citadel rises over 70 feet above its 
northern base and about 65 feet above the general level of the plain, and stands in 


318 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


part surrounded by a broad moat between it and a crescent-shaped plateau of 
culture débris left open on thesouth. The long embankment, 1o feet high, appears 
to be the remains of a wall built late in the city’s history when it had expanded to 
that extent. In size these ruins approach those of the Merv delta, while their 
older portions are much older in appearance. The only pottery found in small 
exploration pits to a depth of 2 or 3 feet on top of the citadel was wheel-turned, 
red, vesicular black, and light-gray, while similar pits on the plateau west exposed 
human skulls. Here may be a column of records down through the Greco-Bactrian 
age into horizons contemporary with Anau’s South Kurgan culture. 


EEMAN TEPE. 





SEES 
| Heman Tepe, about half a mile 


| southeast of Dshisak Station, stands 
) 65 feet out of the plain as a citadel 
of special importance to us, for, 
though of an ancient round-worn 
form, it rises into glazed-ware time. 
Its culture was explored with a 
few shallow exploration pits on top 
and has been exposed in terraces, 
cut in near its base, where natives 
have taken débris, presumably for 
fertilizer. In these were found two 
or three specimens of glazed ware 
and glass and much red and gray 
wheel-turned pottery, some of it 
withinciseddesigns. It isamound 
of rich culture, abounding in bones, 
ashes, and hearths. Here may bea 
column through the period of which 
so little is known, that between 
Mohammedan and early Greco- 
Bactrian times, perhaps overlap- 
Fig. 482.—Urmitan Kurgan. ping part of Kara Tepe (western). 





RIVER-CUT MOUNDS OF MILLITINSKAYA. 


The valley of Djillan-ooti Darya, otherwise known as Timur’s Gaie, is a 
remarkable example of the hydrographic complications brought about by uplift 
of mountains, whose round-worn, outlying, terminal spurs were well-nigh buried 
in waste. Before its uplift alluviation from the Zerafshan appears to have over- 
flowed, or nearly overflowed, the worn-down Millitinskaya spur and possibly 
coalesced with the Syr Darya plains, so that the Djillan-ooti Darya found its way 
out to the Syr Darya. Uplift resulted in the Djillan-ooti excavation of Timur’s 
Gate, widened during quiescence to a flood-plain about two-thirds of a mile wide. 
Even after this the ancients led Zerafshan water from Pendyakent through an old 


OASES. 


319 


canal-way to the Djillan-ooti, and it is thought the Zerafshan might still be diverted 


north to join the Syr. 


If so, Bokhara lies at the mercy of the rulers of Samarkand. 


When the two now river-cut mounds were built the Djillan-ooti was alluviating 
its whole flood-plain with a sluggish flow of water carrying fine silt and spreading 


through a dense mass of rushes on either side of a gravel-strewn channel. 


Sescce2e 


Socce 





TOY HH 
NHB 
\ \\ y Chi 


— 6.0 + of cul- 
ture debris 
of cobble stone 
















/ 


a 
" 
Y] 


il) 
" My 
ny Matt! Miele 


-—\ Za 


Much 


eocos 


Seeess 
SEs 
Scocos”? 


ef Soesce 








Section online A B. 
re) 200 400 FEET 


Vertical = horizontal 


\ 


iy 
i 





\ 


Hy) 


Ath 
vy 


74\\ 





= 
LY 





tipi 
TAHT 
if, My ASS 















{fia 























Se mes wa S SSS 
pero AY. FSS 
2 | \ WINS SS 
//| I} | il } 7 / ee {i LINWSS 
LA elaydl f \ GES a 
S \ NNT MNS S 
aS AAU IS 
oy) INS SY {aint <I! \ . 
: — Wn int Aw x 
“Wy = NV) et \hie ND 
We SS Sy \\| IW" ‘ale SS \ 
KZ SS— ge Zi A SY wil Tw mS meer “\\\ 
= SSS ZAIN iN W \ \ \\) 
= BS= 7) ANN \) 
SSS Hf] 
Ss | NN nee 


400 FEET 


eal 








Fig. 483.—Map and Section of Kodishar Kurgan. 


of the flood-plain must have been a marsh, as the layers exposed are matted with 


rushes now in part replaced by carbonate. 
was doubtless caused by a compression of organic constituents. 


The remarkable arching of layers 
Neither mound 


can be attributed to débris of occupation, as there are scarcely any culture remains, 


320 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


but they may have been graves. Our sections appear to indicate the following 
sequence of events: 
(1) Uplift of spur and formation of Djillan-ooti valley. 
(2) Alluviation of wide flood-plain of rush-marshes, loess, and alluvium. 
(3) (a) Construction by man of a canal bringing in Zerafshan water with 
gravels; (b) building of mounds. 
(4) Drying up of that canal and shrinkage of Djillan-ooti water, with forma- 
tion of present channel and accumulation of 3 feet of loess on mounds, 


| 





Fig. 484.—The Citadel of Hissar. 
ANAU. 


PECULIARITIES OF ANAU AS AN OASIS OF TYPE I 8. 
(Plate 65.) 


To us it is of first importance to know what we can of the physiography of 
Anau, in whose ancient oases our shafts and excavations sank through no less 
than 10,000 years of man’s stratified débris. And though its geographical position 
is fully set forth in the beginning of this volume, it remains to sketch a few of its 
type-peculiarities. 

Anau is our best, or most familiar, example of an oasis of type Ib (delta-oases 
of small streams). This type, it may be remembered, is characteristic of the 
border of the plains where small silt-laden streams discharge from the mountains 
and are to best advantage diverted for irrigation. It is a type less exposed to 
sandstorms and overwhelming dunes than type Ia, like those of Merv, and yet 
more open to invasion by man, who may descend from the mountains or migrate 
along their base from oasis to oasis. It is, moreover, a type practically fixed in 
position, as contrasted with the inevitable shifting of type Ia through long- 
continued change of climate or rearrangement of distributaries. The oasis of Anau 
has for some 10,000 years remained so fixed that cultivation is still carried on 
over fields that bury its most ancient ruins. The greater oasis of Merv has in 100 
years changed place by 15 miles. 


PLATE 65. 





= TRANS : 
ANAU STA. CASP/AN 





RAILROAD 








s,s PP. STA. 


ce 
NORTH KURGAN (Os 








/PRIGATION 








TURCOMAN 
OVA 





Map of the Anau Delta. By R. W. Pumpelly. 





OASES. 321 


Asa center of trade old Anau lay at the intersection of two important routes, 
the route from Meshed to Khiva crossing here with the great through way from 
Balkh via Merv round the Caspian’s southern shore. 


THE BUILDING OF A TILTING DELTA. 


The Anau delta is one of a group of similar fan-like plains spread out, side by 
side, from the mountains, and merging together into a piedmont whose slope 
averages perhaps 1 in 100. Although the history of such an area is essentially 
one of a varied aggradation, there is a peculiar deviation from this rule towards 
the margins of a Central-Asian plain, a deviation which has especially complicated 
the part which of anv delta, subaerial or subaqueous, is necessarily most complex 
in manner of growth. It is only well out on the area of deposition that only 


! 
ee aes Imiere = 


olga eae ! 
200ft. 
Djillan Ooti Y 





(A) 










Terrace 
Z fer LU TLLLLILLILIEL 


© SEALE = a Settled | ayers ei clay 
= Ss 


(B) 









Hh Valy 
4 Py) / 
Yi 
/, VIHA 
7™ Loess 

Alluvial gravels 





(Cc) 
Fig. 485.—River-cut Mounds of Millitinskaya (Timur’s Gate). 


deposition takes place, for most of the layers formed near the apex of radiation 
afterwards suffer removal to a greater distance. No permanent growth of the 
apex itself can take place without either a corresponding aggradation of its 
debouching valley’s flood-plain above, or a relative sinking of the plain below. Of 
such a sinking we have manifold evidence, and it is the way in which the plains 
of Central Asia sank that wrought their marginal peculiarities. This of course 
is the uptilting of narrow strips of piedmont beds forming low ridges with fault- 
scarps facing mountainwards and back of which the strata and conformable surface 
slope into the basin where they are buried by later waste. Whatever the cause of 
sinking, these uptilted piedmonts have resulted; and, with that part of the Anau 
delta where the oases were, tilting appears to have been one of the controlling 
factors of topography, not only of the present surface but also, as we shall see, 
of the surface of antiquity now buried by later waste. 


BAe. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


EROSION CYCLES OF THE ANAU SU IN THE MOUNTAINS. 


As the Kopet Dagh Mountains were simultaneously affected and their move- 
ments well recorded by erosion cycles, it is important to fix our attention upon 
them first. After their Tertiary rocks were laid down, a period of mountain- 
building activity resulted in deformation to synclines and anticlines with some 
overturned folding, most of which ran oblique to the general range axis. Then 
followed a lull in crustal movement, during which erosion progressed to maturity, 
leaving remnants of ancient crests as sharp talus-flanked peaks projecting from 
otherwise smoothly rounded ridges on either side of broad, shallow, longitudinal 
vallevs. These valleys in general emptied into short trunk-streams discharging 
at right angles upon the plain, building immense deltas now partly exposed by 
the marginal tilt through which streams, descendants of the ancestral ones, have 
cut valleys to their present deltas just beyond. 

This was the completion of what we may call the first erosion cycle, where- 
upon began, we suppose as a result of its shifting of load, a bodily sinking of the 
plains, with tilting of the border and cross-fracturing of mountains into huge 
blocks differentially uplifted. This cross-fracturing, evidenced by scarps both 
parallel and at right-angles to each other but oblique with the range axis, becomes 
of interest in connection with Woodworth’s classification of rock-fractures. It 
seems to be a habit with Central-Asian ranges, even to the extent of oblique folding 
axes; indeed, the range structure is rarely parallel with its main axis and usually 
crosses at an angle of 30° to 45°. One block rose across the Anau trunk-stream, 
which, however, maintained its course, cutting down a gorge. The broad floors 
of longitudinal valleys were dissected by an extensive system of new tributaries 
developed from their main streams. Now there are commonly three terrace-levels: 
(1) the old first-cycle grade plains, (2) a narrow terrace about halfway between 
(1) and the present stream, (3) the broad flat of the valley bottom cut by the 
present narrow channel of the stream 10 to 25 feet deep with falls. This indicates 
division of crustal movement into a second and a third erosion cycle with rela- 
tively short lapses of quiet (as compared with the first cycle). In comparatively 
recent times there appears to have begun the third period of crustal movement. 
In the region of Manisht south of Anau dissection of the wide valley bottom (third- 
cycle flood-plain) had progressed till the fourth-cycle (present) channels were 
well incised. There but small portions of the old first-cycle floor remain as the 
flat tops of steep-sided hills rising several hundred feet above these channels. 
Streams were cutting back over small falls and rapids, and divides were shifting 
while pirating heads were capturing less active streams. 


RECENT DECREASE OF SURFACE DRAINAGE. 


A fourth erosion cycle had been well started and was actively progressing, 
when occurred a remarkably sudden decrease in surface drainage and most of 
these tributary channels have been left without running water to this day, and 
remain grown over with grass, the sod extending directly under the brinks of 
old falls. As this region is tributary to the Anau Su, it is important to explain 


OASES. 323 


its decrease in surface-water contributions. Most of the Anau valley system 
is developed in soluble rocks, limestones, and gypsiferous beds, with occasional 
deposits of pure gypsum. Caverns are rare as compared with a land that has 
always received much rainfall, but we must believe a good system of underground 
drainage has been developed—a system competent to lead off most of the present 
rainfall, which, though sufficient to nourish a varied and profuse vegetation on 
these mountains, is nearly absent from their surface streams. 

The upper branches of the Gyourse valley, about 15 miles southeast of Anau, 
tell a similar story. Their sodded-over channels and falls join about 10 miles 
south of Gyourse, where the lower terrace broadens into a wide grass plain con- 
fronted by a bare rock wall running northwest, straight across and conformable 
to the 40° dip of the red sandstone beds of an uptilted block, bounded elsewhere 
with battered fault-scarps. Here the Gyourse trunk-stream enters the block 
at right angles to its rock face, having carved its way down as the block rose across 
it. All this represents a stream of erosive activity and rapid enough to leave a 
valley of the canyon class, but recently the stream has dwindled, till now its waters 
can barely creep over the slight grade established under its former large flow. 
The old rock floor is covered with an organic mud grown over with reeds, which 
still more retard its thin sheet of slowly moving water. After traversing this 
swampy bottom of the old canyon it passes through a narrow valley in the tilted 
piedmont and emerges upon the apex of its fan, where it is entirely consumed in 
irrigating a small area of Turkoman fields. Except in flood the water is clear, 
though vile from organic solutions. Formerly during its active time this stream 
was charged with silt and spread over a large delta. 

This remarkable decrease of surface drainage was obviously so recent that 
it becomes of vital interest to the archeology of Anau. Our problem as a whole 
is peculiar and a new one to physiography. Here are mountains in whose soluble 
rocks there has been developed a system of underground drainage of capacity 
sufficient to consume most of the present precipitation, all of it in some valleys, 
but until recently there was such an excess over this capacity that surface streams 
were well supplied and actively eroding. Two explanations may be offered: 
Either the underground capacity has suddenly increased, or precipitation has 
decreased. It is improbable, if not impossible, that underground drainage of 
all this area simultaneously perfected to sudden monopoly. On the other hand, 
if we postulate a decrease in precipitation, it need only be general, not sudden. 
As long as the underground system remained saturated as it would be with an 
excess of supply, a slow and continuous decrease of precipitation would cause 
only a correspondingly slow decrease in surface drainage. But as soon as precip- 
itation decreased to the value of underground capacity, surface drainage would 
vanish. Or, to put it mathematically, let 


= inches of precipitation ¢ years ago. 

= capacity of underground drainage; a constant to be expressed in 
inches of precipitation. 

surface drainage or excess over G. 

= rate of decrease in precipitation (inches per year). 

= time in years. 


ae WH D'U 
lI 


324 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


Then in ¢ years from the time that a decrease in fall began, S=P—G-— ft. 
If P in the beginning had been equal to 2G, and thus evenly divided between 
G 


surface and underground drainage, and p equal to say = ; 
“ 2000 1000 


ys ae oe 
IO00O 





and total fall (S+G) aay “ee if 
2000 

Plotting these sloping lines we see how asteady decrease in precipitation, as 
the underground value is approached, affects the surface drainage during the first 
century by only 10 per cent, during the sixth century by 20 per cent, during the 
ninth century by 50 per cent, and during the tenth century by 100 per cent; that 
is, a uniform decrease subtracts an increasing proportion of what is left till the 
surface excess vanishes, though there may still be a plentiful fall, which is there- 
after consumed by underground drainage. Whatever record remained would 
thus have the appearance of sudden change towards the end. 

We are thus driven to believe there has been a relatively recent decrease 
in the precipitation. The next question is: Where does the underground water 
drain to? A small proportion finds its way to the surface again, supplying most 
of the present flow in trunk-streams, a return through small cavernous springs, 
several of which were observed near Manisht. But the limited amount which 
now composes the Anau Su and Gyourse Su, even at high water, represents but 
a slight proportion of what falls over that high region. That it continues out 
under the plain is evidenced by water rising in native wells scattered far and wide 
over the Turkoman Trough. It seems barely possible that water drains through 
sand and gravel beds all the way from these mountains to the Caspian. 

Turning to the delta again, we find it tells the same story in a recent shrinkage 
of water distribution. Wide areas of clay, some of which project 5 to 10 miles out 
among the dunes, are now dry during the highest floods, and not many centuries 
can have elapsed since their alluviation, for all would otherwise have been strewn 
with dunes. Some few hundred years ago water found its way to a small town 
near Ball Kuwi, about 6 miles north, whose ruins we explored. 


SHAPE OF THE ANAU DELTA AND IRREGULARITIES WROUGHT BY MAN'S DEBRIS OF 
OCCUPATION AND HIS CONTROL OF ALLUVIAL DEPOSITIONS. 


The Anau delta and its surroundings present a myriad of surface problems, 
of whose most general features a competent study would involve a large-scaled 
topographic map, constructed with the double eye of physiography and arche- 
ology; while far more light on both past and present may be revealed with the aid 
of a microscope and sensitive weighing balance. When for the first time one stands 
upon its clay surface, all the plain appears in simple flatness to the eye. . Rising 
to the south is the Kopet Dagh Range of rather flat-backed mountains, notched 
by valley gaps, and from their base the plain slopes gently out into the northern 
semicircle of ocean-like horizon, broken only by sand waves tossed from the desert 
of Kara Kum. ‘Toward the middle rise two kurgans and the last citadel of ruins 
with its outlying watch-towers, the three dead towns of Anau in whose stratified 
débris we dug. 





le WS Se 
ee @ es, mere a names 


7 | 
% . 


» 7s iu b 


é ; 
, 
vn oer : 
’ e 
2 ,o 
iat 
* 
a 
; : el lah " a ; 
. * * —— 
3 2 aa row we Ox eanei’ | 2 ots 
= in et 
sane ds jak e Prt he —<é — ‘ _ 
vty * p Ld 
. of ' 
na = . : ’ ‘ 
,: mecer iss ’ 
v , ly pee | hb) eet ae et 
‘ Ans i 4 eye weg oh ieee i) rau nly 
thee, air ee 9 en, nn, Sie 
o < an ON i. ill r rs 4 eke «a ae alt 
nan My ; Ve avo yea Ot Myre! “9 } 
a4; —D : 2 fy we one). 7 aig y 7 
“ 5 ~ reg 1% i sh wv i, Leth af a 
<< ani oan Aye bg } 
ete Pa o ye ane ern) ae a 
j bow bere yea "ey Y ” ; ay aeeh i“ - iP 
: a — x ; 
«se , | 
i 
f # “0 Bg a 
1 Seaises bec <9 4 7 ' 
ie Me, ian = Hl +e: cua i ‘wit : 
> ; * ie petigae’ vale 
i . i 2eeines ye ow ve. 
f S50% tia a , ia (3 4 age 
yorar we +s — 4 fad | ' —— aw 
a | as 2 ‘4 A id : a=, tet ' 
r o 4 Ve Rene ee aon ‘ = oe re : 
4 * - 2 =< é 
ayets epee sa lal 9 : ; eerie: 
‘ - ‘ yr re iy 7 + @e > = Phe, = pil ‘ =? _ } 
Tip ets TS dies 
re A tthe Dee Sa = ev - : ey AAG | 
~~ qel! Lal vy amen) “7 a ; pare * / 
; ; Pa MSFT NM Wb hos © re ee 
fa 120 On he ‘ 4 iy ee s seal i 
yy wy 7 
ill ad some 5 \ Me Bes 
: , ee 2 hee t \ 3 2 “ , : } 
Bs ey = ty Bee ee, = aan 
: [Pane Ae ote) v2 | 
ay ' . | 
» : 
J 
¢ 
~ te 
: ! i 4 
- . 
a 
en ee et . 
} : + . , j et ij . 
. | =i 
“ = ‘ 
: oy 





a] 


TURKES TAN 




















ed 5 Ss 
i i 
Shaft E 
: Sheft B SORT <a 
, © . 
_—Level of irrigation __ 
Began sinking April 28 
peas Irrigation 
' , 
Stratified pottery 
ss: and gravel 
=5 
Lumpy loam, sandy clay 
unstratified 
April 2 
s -10 
‘ t April 22 
Stratified sands 
=5) and clays 
= Stratified clay, 
pure, lump 
Red pottery of S.K.upper culture 
uae . Sandy 
Gravel and sand 
>> Stratified sand 
= aA pacecieciv ces 





S.K. Shaft B 


— 30 





Irrigation 
LAN 
















Lumpy loam 


is, Sand 


Lumpy loam 


Sandy ey with irregular rare 
layers of fine cross-bedding 


Unstratified sandy clay 


Hard unstratifiéd sandy clay 





=== Yellow, gray and red banded 
- Clays, and sandy clay 


=x Gravel and sand 
Homogeneous 
Laminated clays 


Compact finely banded and 
laminated gray, white, and 
light brown clays 


Clays, loess 
Loess and clay 


Loess 


-20 


S20 


20 


Shaft D 


7 
7 





Starts 42 ft. below S.K.datum 


Z 


S.K.Shaft Fo 











Gray unlaminated 
sandy clay 


Clay cross-bed 
striking wavy 
lamination 


Clays and sandy clays 
with disturbe 
stratification 


Fine light yellow clay 
Pure 


Very compact yellow 
gray clays 


Kurgan wash 


Cornpact clays, very 
compact light gray 
clays, irregularly banded 


Brownish cross-bedded silica 
Banded clays, streaked with sand 
Interbedded streak of gravel 


Sands and clays 
St. compact 


Sandy clays 
and sands 
Light buff 





Fenn i a OF 


About //00 feet 
KEY PROFILE 


0 50 roo 


150 FEET 


{a ae ee Se ee Hl) 









Datum of $.K. 


Loose earth with 
little pottery 


Sandy, unstratified with 
some pottery 








Phe 


PLATE 66 









Culture strata 









-10 
Base of irrigation ? 
== Banded red and gray clays, _Base of ee re No.l 
pier aoe ee == —— Pure banded green 
——-—-—-= and gray clays 
Sandy clay, gray oe PERS 
sendy ceyeeey. =15 > Freeredpottery 
2 ees 
lays = = Stratified sand 
zs y 
coarse sand Pale brown } cigs und Sern 
—20 = Pure clay not stratified 
Li bi ; = 
ene orenh Compact fine clays with Rich culture 

disturbed banding and 

lamination, containin Pee Traces of 

some pottery : 25 Iture No.2 charcoal and 

Se : Slightly sandy pottery 

Light yellow Tati : : 
and gray Yellowish banded clays 


Laminated light yellow 
clays, loose 
Light yellow and gray banded clays 


Looseand fine clay banded 


Loess 


Clay banded 





—38/r° 


SHAHTS 


Kurgan wash,with pottery of S.K.older culture 








Banded clays 
ed Light red, yellow, gray, 
compact banded clays 


Saom-anr= Soft banded clays 
manip ileg adh immer 


PLATES Ov 








190 Ff. WEST OF N.K B.M.Go 
epee ae a Lev: oT N.K. datum 


poe 0.3 ft 





- 
a 
< 
la} 
to) 
—- 
Zz 





Vo natural size 





Fine silica’ 
Bie tei eet ght brown - 
Saft fines vee. Da ere caer 
white clay 5 ES ; 





1 Light brown cross-bedded silica 
2 Brown sand 





Irrigation 
Pottery rare 





3 Pure white clay 
4 Pure light buff colored clay with surface-weath 





ered ...07 + 


| 
Base of irrigation 342 
Wash-gravel andsand 
with pottery 

















Horizontal section of clays andsands ~ ** 
in. NaK.W:S: 1, at — 35.2 
Hearth 














Hearth 


Vertical section in N.K.W.S.1 
showing weathered surface at —35 


vu 
—10 5 
2 
a 
w Vv 
= ts 
Bu 
eo -35Ft 
=15.F 
» 
Op 
aw 
ve 
Vv 
Lo 
S20 ec 
Ey 
30 
oc 
2 
[pe 
=< 20 
Ca 
g 
ag 
) = 
<a 
w 
UD 
Vv 
o 
fea => a 
of RATE 
o = 
s 
" 
| = 


White 


sate Hearth 








Base of culture rs 
a9 

Su 

eS 

oq 

.— 

oo 

ca 

KEY PROFILE Soe 

morte Crossbedded sand a 































































=30 seen ee Crossbeddéd sand 
SAP SCE Horizontal section of clay- banded 
Ped ee loess at -18 ft.in N.K.W.S.2 
Parided' clays N.K. datum : 2%) 
Very fine light brown 
Saks) crossbedded sand 
Sands and clays 
Compact light a : 
gray clays Homogeneous mass Sie Cine Butt I yrypypSe| Cross-bedded silica 
of sandy clay sabes 
Nini VV ccs allie —5 Irrigation =e 
: {Buff cross-bedded cla 
o porceer ets as x —20 poe ee with pottery, bones,charccal 
i 2 atene 2) y More sandy, <—| Pure green clay 
A aeeaee Se ne ee ween ars = mip s lenses of pure Clay el 
fe) - 2 C , . ‘ 
iF: 8 Laminated sand =22 Pic ashi gees = Silicious gray clay 
o Lamin.blue cla structure not deter. 
OS 2 Irrigation Crossbed send sere) Charcoal 
iy a2) Coreen =23 Lamin.gray Clay 4 Saae 
v OS x Base of irrigation Lamin blue clay. j=ss====> 
= -15 Rl -e====—-—=— —24 Lamin.blue and) p= === Cross-bedded sand 
N a Eoess (2) gray clays 
© oe Fine loose clay o5 
i a a a pEeess!) Sper bell cole 
er potter =n aint anded 
= -20 adsociated with ie oes Irregularly banded, 26 ere dulerty 
charcoal SS GSS == very compact 
Upper blue- gray clays es 
‘potter y : CU 
: See a ae === Same hard clay.Light gray 
~- O - 
Ss AG) Resembles cross bedded sand 28 = 
oe lower pottery == = y E Buff color silicious 
Loe =25 =-Very compact clay, pure = clays with faint 
i~3B -=Brecciated blue-gray irregular banding 
Clay aj ==s-=-- = pune Clays ~30 
Fine. clay ——— ——-—— = — ~~ —— _—__ — —— Valley run- m*5==-=Buff colored silicious clays 
loess N.K.W.S.2. Detail at — 15% ning west NW ris == =.with faint irregular bands esate See 


Vertical section of interbedded 30 
clay and loess(flood plain) 

Swe eae suens and tran- 

sitions from one to the other 


showing cuts running N.65°W. 
North side on left 
x =pot sherd 


N.K.W.S. 2. 


Anau Shafts. 








PLATE 68. 


ANAU CITY 





Mosque: 
shaft 2 






Graveyard shaft. 





Horizontal scale O 100 200 300 400 500 FEET 
— + tt 
Vertical scale (e) io 20 30040 50 FEET 


B.M.+17.35 








TTI R 


777 KWY7) B.M, +30.8 








Datum of N.K. 4 
Irrigation culture 
| 
} 
! ; Pott. ; 
ee aah | Evident ottery, bones 
irrigation irrigation \e 
ace & (B culture and charcoal 
L 
2H 
o> Sandy clay 
= 
o 
Pure clay te s a 
Banded irregularly “2 es 
anded irregular 
f Le aan ey low glass be d4_ _Datumof N.K. 
i> 
i) . . . o 
Gentimetratiiike Ss : pee oe itetion (Garden culture) e 
ray sandy clay, irri, mar 4t*== Pure clay-irregular rs) 
grays y Clay, irri Datunn oo Net FS rot——= brecciated banding Ss 
| ee Pure clay finely a Fee 
Coarse sand “e¢ ee aminaved -S- _Level of irrigation 
ae E FEES Coarse sand Sass = outside of walls 
Gray sandy clay, irri. = === Fine light yellow clay Se Te 
== == == Reddish =======-== Fine loess, yellow, c 
re Reecd oats Soe i | See oe = 
are Sir See Wins ciny === with layers of — 
Mosque shaft 2 See F x 
Base of irrigation PSS ZiS finely laminated 
= Clays and sandy clays === === pure clay 
S aes Concretions veers 
=== === Stratified clays Pee 
|____SSS Mosque shaft 
Graveyard shaft Just east of Citadel. Datum ——+t-—~ Baseofculture 
At station 2485 east of N. K. === Laminated clays 
on profile to Citadel. (ae ee 
Mosque shaft 3 


Anau Shafts, 


es nas 
yey - Tape, he 


n eede 





ee 


PLATE 69. 


Level of stream bed“2e9e~ 


t 











2 








Canal 


Irrigation ,Sediments 

















Section of irrigation canal 
Bearings or Mosque, N.20£, 
Bearings on S.K., N,37°W 

= ct) 
Irrigation | 
= Ny 
| 

TTT ee — + 


Section of same 
200 4yards N 





Cana! sediments 


SS ET tia 


Cross-bedded sands 
and clays On Mosque canal 
above Mosque shafts 


Bearings to Mosque N,/5E. 
Bearings to S k,N.72°W. 









Irrigation” 








Very soft structure indefinite 


Faintly banded clay sand 
Clay and sand, soft 


[282] Pure sand 

ere} Grit and gravel 
St.sands and clays 
Sand 


Mosque shaft 6 
About 200 yards south, upstream from road 





Irrigation, 
bones, glass 
and pottery 


Cross-bedded and 
banded fine silica 


ee Clay and sand 





Irrigation canal deposits on Mosque stream 





ee 


: Detail of 
LEZ 


cross-bedding 


Fine silica 


FIVE SECTIONS OF THE MAIN CANAL GULLY 









Loose _un- 
stratified 
clay loam, 
with pottery 
ibones,and stones 


Pottery 
and stones 
~ Hearth 
ele vel Cf) ae ae Datum 1 @ 
plain D=5 ae 


Clay cassetéte 
fragment of Metate 


x 
“Pottery 


R.W.P Well in Anau Valley 


=O 





-10-- 


eet ee 








Stone hammer 
and fragments 
of mealing 
stone 


Pottery of S.K.upper 
culture in pocket of 
loose earth = 








Coarse sand, 
occasional pebbles 


Mound 1 shaft 
Surface of mound /2 feet £ above S.K.0.0. 


Bearings on Mosque N.69°E. 


Surface Bearings on S.K. N./7°E, 


Hard loam, sandy 
Irrigation 


VERTICAL SCALE 


Oo 5 ite) 
SSS — dt 


FEET, 











Soft clay loam 


Clay, no grit 


r= Dehad io. 


Hearth 
and pottery 





Sand and gravel 


Hard, very pure 
banded clay 


Hard, very pure 


30-- 
35-—+ 
40--4 


20--- 








= Nearly homogeneous 


mass of clay, mixed loess 


{ Pure loess diameters from 
3o™M to 2&5 mm, 

Streak of pebbles 

Loess and clays 


Gravel 


i {om particles of 


=: Fine loess streaked with 


layers of clay 
Red 


= Banded clays{ Yellow 














“oO 
wOlO”e 





Fine loess,banded 
with fine clays 


; Gravel 


Gravel 
Cross-bedded loess 
Cross- bedded loess 


Homogeneous loess 
(red, brown) 


Clay banded - Gray streaks 
Homogeneous loess 


Angular gravel of sizes 
from gritto4inch 
cobbles, filled with 
brown sand 


Sand 


Sand with lumps of clay 


Sandy clay with bones 





blue clay 





Se 





Pottery, red band ’einch 








Hard, very pure clay streaked with red 











Bandy clay 
Hard laminated clay, stratified 
Red st 


Saal = Red st. 
Sesksoee 4 inches of angular gravel 





Hard, light yellow, pure clay, with no 


visible stratification 


Red layer, sandy, | inch thick 
Stratified clay streaked with sand 


Middle well shaft 
JE0 yds. south, upstream from southern end of N. K. 


Anau Shafts. 





Koee 


Boll 


Pure clay, Mostly si 
J ‘ y silica 
faintly particles of 
banded ayo diameters 
= Clay 


Fine pure sand 


(Silica particles of 
diameters from 
i56mm.to 4mm.) 


& 


. 





“ i—_ 


, 
) . a 
¢ ~ a 
hf ~ a 7 
t , a a 
, . 
6 7 
ae 
. $ 
Ly 
: J 


OASES. aso 


More careful observation shows the plain, at first so simple in appearance, to 
be of complex form. Its conical convexity, indicated on the map by radiation of 
distributaries, may be demonstrated by watching a rider who crosses its lines dis- 
appear as does a ship at sea, whereas one passing straight down the slope will 
slowly fade into the heat waves of mirage. Our map shows it to be a character- 
istic subaerial delta with the general outlines of a fan, encroached upon by dunes 
from the north. Except for about 2 miles from its apex, it is everywhere bounded 
by dunes, without which its radius would be over 10 miles, as prolongations of bare 
clay still reach that far into the desert. At present outlying sandhills stand 4 
miles north of the apex, while its greatest width is but 5 miles. Careful study of 
the surface proves it by no means that of an even cone. It is everywhere broken 
with irregularities wrought by man; canals long since abandoned, mounds, and 
roadways, and most significant are its areas of many hundred acres several feet 
above the general surface, a difference caused by man’s control of alluviation, 
concentrating the stream with its depositions into limited areas of cultivation. 
These areas of concentrated deposition are bounded on the lower side with long 
bluffs varying up to 4 feet in height and of irregular plan, as shown on the map 
(fig. 486 and plate 65). 

For more complete explanation of these zones of concentrated deposition we 
may look to its present distribution. Except during exceptional flood, all the 
water of Anau Su is led into a system of canals irrigating fields with low dams 
on their down-slope sides. An irrigated area thus comprises a system of fields 
bounded round the lower side by an irregular, often more or less crescent-shaped, 
dam and merges above into the plain. This dam or dike may be only a foot or two 
in height, but it is always easier to rebuild or patch up the old one than to make 
it in a new place,so that a permanent barrier to deposition may exist for centuries 
on the lower border of irrigation; and since the whole stream is consumed in these 
areas, its depositions are concentrated therein and accumulate in the form of what 
we may term “‘irrigation terraces.’’ All phases of this process may be observed 
in the Turkoman grain-fields of to-day. We thus have an ancient delta surface 
surmounted by irrigation sediments concentrated into terraces near its apex. If 
man, their controlling factor, for any reason abandons them to carry on his agricul- 
ture elsewhere, they show their instability with the first flood; water-gates burst 
and dikes are rent by the stream thus set free to rush over terraces, falling down 
bluffs and gullying back. In the course of a score or so of years this channel will 
be carved to base-level and the excavated terrace material lie spread over the delta 
beyond. 

Pronounced irrigation terraces result only where a fixed area has been con- 
tinuously irrigated for a long time, and so the outlying, more erratically cultivated 
areas, comprising a large portion of the Anau delta, have aggraded in a less differ- 
entiated or more uniform way. The non-observant might cross such a terraced 
plain with never a doubt as to its uniformity. A sloping and often round-worn 
bluff, only 2 or 3 feet high and irregular in course, running perhaps a half mile 
and fading at either end into the plain, does not ordinarily arrest the eye nor 
does such a slight difference of level between two wide adjacent areas. To the 


326 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


trained eye there are pronounced terraces and others which are distinguishable 
by careful sighting only. Some slight accumulations have resulted from Turko- 
man irrigation, while large areas formerly irrigated by the Anau-li and abandoned 
only 50 years ago are now dissected with gullies 15 feet deep and over that in 
width, and other areas of Anau-li fields are still growing under Turkoman irriga- 
tion. Asa whole the irrigation deposits of our Anau delta lie within an area spread 
out from its apex to irregular limits near the railroad. In its central portion this 
accumulation, exposed by a gully down into its underlying floor of natural sedi- 
ments, attains a thickness of 15 to 20 feet, but from there outwards terraces down 
over broad fields with 2-foot drops. 





Plan 


HH) i) 
MH) 
IX 
97 /!) 
Tif) 
Wy 
Wy 
WWM, 
YY 
ee 


[I 

/ 
I 
fi 
Wi 
HN) 

bh 

) 
—Y 


IH 
I 

Wy 
[ill 


{| 








——— oe — SS 
—_Terrace 3= 3 Terrace £-—1 

| aaa ts E = 
=3 a — ee 


| 
| 
| 
ii 
| 
i) 




















—— eo —— 
= acd Ve = ~ & anil = 
ip ATT IA OMT aren a 

















————— 
arre = errcee 
Ss ——————— a. 
——— ae eee — a 
at ————— a- ae, 8 
= eae gee. er Se 
- — | (EP ee 
A 


—-- AS: ee he | 
oe meeoees eee fica, 


\ 
My 






= Pr aks ae = 
en 









Section 

















Fig. 486.—An Abandoned System of Irrigation Terraces. 


The old through route of East and West crossed the middle of the delta and 
so determined the boundaries of Anau’s ancient fields along it that a bluff from 1 
to 4 feet high of irrigation limits follows much of the way along its southern side. 
Other irregularities are found in shallow rounded troughs, whose heading branches 
fade into the plain obliterated by more recent irrigation. ‘These are old canal- 
ways, bounded once by fields aggrading on either side while they remained unsilted 
till abandoned, now slowly losing shape. Each kurgan and the citadel has split 
the irrigation stuff around it, thus in part protecting an area directly north or 


OASES. B27 


below from deposition and leaving it somewhat depressed. These are a few of 
the topographical variations wrought in time by human occupation of an aggrad- 
ing delta. 


THE ANCIENT AND THE MODERN DUNES OF KARA KUM AND INTERBEDDING OF 
THE DELTA MARGINS WITH THEM. 


Riding north from Anau, one passes from bare clay on to gently rolling sand- 
hills, ancient dunes that have long since lost their barkhan shape and now appear 
to be of great antiquity. For a few days in spring these are green with grass, 
soon withered brown by the arid sun. So old are these now fossil dunes that their 
firm, cross-bedded sand stands wind-carved in vertical and overhanging bluffs, while 
all around are seen resistant holes deep-burrowed by desert turtles, lizards, and 
hyenas. Over them lie fresh barkhans of sand, now drifting from the ever-shifting 
waves of Kara Kum beyond. One might expect to meet with naught but dunes 
in such a wind-built desert land, but far out among them lie small areas of smooth 


AES RT 4 
epee Po tf 








Fig. 487.—A Canal Gully in the Abandoned Irrigation Terraces of Anau. 


flat clay, still bare—portions of the delta isolated from the rest at different times 
long past. And as they vary greatly in relation to each other, to the mother delta 
and to the dunes, these areas of bare clay become of interest. In some instances 
two plains separated by only a narrow ridge of dunes differ several feet in level. 
Thus we have preserved in open air the ancient delta surface, various horizons of 
antiquity escaped from burial. 

How old these more ancient dunes around Anau are may be conjectured from 
a section exposed by our shaft sunk through the ruins of the sand-buried oasis 
near Ball Kuwi (see plate 69). There culture rests on hard, extremely fine, lami- 
nated clay, light brown, the contact being practically on a level with the takir plain 
just north and doubtless a continuation of its horizon. This clay bed is 4.5 feet 
thick and rests on 1 foot of dune-sand, below which lies another sheet of clay 0.5 
foot thick. From there down our shaft continued in dune-sand, cross-bedded on 
a large scale and so loose that it was unsafe to go deeper, and how far it is to the 
next clay layer we know not, but imagine that for great depth the structure would 
be large masses of dune-sand interbedded with clay. What we did suffices to 
show that here was an area where an aggrading delta surface was from time to 


328 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


time encroached upon by dunes which it rose to bury. We have a value of 17 
feet for the growth of the plain since it had risen to the level of the bottom of our 
shaft; a minimum value for the antiquity of the sand, because it is a long time 
since the last alluviation of this area. or at least many thousand years it must 
have been a region of outlying dunes. 


ANALYSIS OF SHAFT SECTIONS OF THE DEPOSITS FROM MAN, WATER, AND WIND. 
(See Plates 66-69.) 


The moment that deeper layers are explored a host of problems arise. In 
our shafts, ranged on curved lines on plate 2, and on the profiles on plates 66-68, 
we penetrated four distinct kinds of growth, that of man’s débris, that of his irriga- 
tion, that of natural alluvium, that of loess, and adding to them the flying sands 
of outlying dunes we find our plain is built of five divisions of deposition under the 
forces of man, water, and wind. It will be observed that there is a perfect grada- 
tion between the different divisions and subdivisions. 


( Kurgan culture: Slow growth of clay débris rich in pottery, 
bones, and charcoal. 

Walled culture (that of fortified citadels): More rapid growth 
of clay débris less rich in pottery, bones, and charcoal. 

Garden culture: Growth of irrigated fields near a city; contains 
some artefacts. 

Undifferentiated sandy clay deposited under continuous irri- 
gation of annually plowed fields. 

Interbedded irrigation and natural sediments (the result of culti- 
vating a naturally flooded area at rare intervals), 

Series 3: Laminated clays, sandy clays, sand and gravel. 

Series 2: Pure, hard, banded clays and beds of angular gravel 
with grit. 

Series 1: Interbedded loess, blown sand, and alluvium. Soft, 
velvety clays, clay-banded loess, grit and gravel. 

Fresh dunes of pure loose sand (drifting). 

Dune-sand interbedded with the delta margins. 

Ancient dunes of firm sand mixed with loess particles (fixed). 

Loess mixed with wind-blown sand, 

Loess, pure homogeneous, of vertical cleavage, with small gypsum 

L L erystals. 


( Culture débris......... 
| 
Manin. J 


Irrigation sediments. . . 


Natural sediments 


Water.... (alluvial igs eee: 


Wind-swept flood-plain 
deposits 4.2 pee ee 


Dune-sand:..7...:..<.. 


~— 


Windia. 


——— — — pee sees 
eh tt ee ee te 


Over 150 hours were spent underground in sketching the shaft sections here 
reproduced, and, in addition, fully half that amount of time was given to the study 
and comparison of samples taken out. Each shaft was scaled all the way down 
with levels scratched from a tape line, its layers cut clean by a long knife and 
studied with the light of an acetylene lamp, and characteristic samples taken out 
in solid blocks up to a foot high. Afterwards the material in these samples was 
studied under a microscope. 

Culture remains are easily distinguished by their pottery, bones, charcoal, 
clay bricks, and various artefacts. In amount they vary from isolated artefacts 
found as fossils in wind and water deposits to the massive accumulations left by 
towns. It was found that such remains when in situ of original deposition were 
invariably associated with bits of charcoal, whereas those afterwards shifted by 
water or wind, or gravity alone, are nearly always utterly without charcoal; a 
truth explained by the fact that a material so light as charcoal is inevitably borne 
far beyond its heavier associates, such as potsherds or bones. 


OASES. 329 


Irrigation sediments are of course far more widespread than culture, while 
between them there is a gradation which may be termed garden culture—sedi- 
ments arising from the concentrated irrigation of gardens in and near a city and 
thus more rapid in growth than those of ordinary fields and containing many 
artefacts. These are all well exposed in gullies near the citadel of Anau. Irriga- 
tion stuff proper is at first hard to distinguish from natural alluvium, its strati- 
graphically differentiated equivalent, and even after long experience utmost care 
must be given to their separation. If all fields of cultivation had been continuously 
irrigated till abandoned, there would be no trouble, but this was not always so. 
In the graveyard shaft, we see how an area, after having aggraded g feet under 
irrigation, was abandoned to natural forces long enough for 2.5 feet of laminated 
clays to accumulate, after which it was again cultivated during the upper 11 feet 
of growth. It took about 1o hours’ hard work to make sure how deep irrigation was 
in that shaft. No stratification can result on a cultivated area unless it be aban- 
doned long enough for natural sediments to accumulate a greater thickness than 
is disturbed by subsequent hoeing or plowing, which is 4 inches and more. At 
its base irrigation stuff is often found containing fragments of natural sediment, 
below which are remnants of the original plow or hoe trenches. A characteristic 
mass of irrigation stuff contains all sediments utterly undifferentiated except for 
the gravel and coarser grit concentrated here and there in bottoms of canals from 
time to time abandoned and buried by irrigation through new canals. It is thusa 
homogeneous mass of sandy clay. The limits of such accumulations, both ancient 
and modern, have been described. Though pre in thickness from Io to 25, 
the average appears to be 15 feet. 

Natural alluvium directly underlies irrigation sediments. Of that pene- 
trated by our shafts there appear to be three epochs of growth, differing in struc- 
ture and kind and separated by two erosion intervals as indicated in sections of 
unconformity. During the first of these, our delta appears to have been a wind- 
swept flood-plain, which through inequalities of growth from time to time gave 
rise to shifting grassy areas left isolated from alluviation for so long that wind- 
blown material accumulated on them in various degree. Such appears to have 
been the first epoch state with its resulting interbedded gravels, grit and clays 
and homogeneous loess, which were penetrated with two shafts at the North 
Kurgan and two at the South. Some change took place and the delta was divided 
by a valley, how deep we do not know. Then began our second-epoch growth of 
pure, hard, laminated clays interstratified with beds of gravel. Probably ere the 
North Kurgan was founded this new epoch had aggraded its valley flood-plain 
and refilled its delta valley to within about 8 feet of the delta’s old first-epoch 
surface, as traces of culture are found in all shafts down to this horizon, but nowhere 
below. This growth was of pure, hard clay, banded and finely laminated; blue 
when wet and yellowish when dry; it appears to bottom on a basal bed of semi- 
angular gravel, and to have ultimately risen nearly high enough to overflow the 
whole delta; that is, till the delta valley or channel was filled practically flush. 


330 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


A second reexcavation of the valley was followed by its third-epoch growth 
filling the last channel, and this growth was in process when Anau city was founded 
and the stream was probably wholly used for irrigation, and so the growth has 
continued till now in the form of irrigation sediments, raising the delta plain 
around our kurgans to a height of 20 feet above its ancient first-epoch surface on 
which the two kurgan oases were founded. In it there is more sand than in any 
of the preceding epochs and it is likewise more rapid in appearance. 


SUMMARY OF THE MORE IMPORTANT FACTS OF THE PAST PHYSIOGRAPHY OF ANAU. 


First cycle. 
Pliocene, Kopet Dagh worn to low relief. 
Immense deltas built. 


Second and third cycles (Quaternary). 


Two uplifts of Kopet Dagh and corresponding general sinking of plains, while the 
piedmont deltas of the first cycle are bent up along the base of the mountains. 

Valleys excavated and prolonged through old uptilted deltas to build new, smaller 
ones beyond. 


Fourth cycle (Postglacial). 

Mountains continue rising again and the new delta at Anau continues tilting, but so 
slowly that with sufficient alluviation it grows. 

Reaction to dry and formation of delta valley. 

Reaction to wet and alluviation of delta valley. North Kurgan founded. 

During oscillations in precipitation over the mountains, alluviation twice again falls 
below rate of tilt and our buried delta valley thus twice again comes to be. 

Precipitation now scarcely in excess of underground drainage. 

Dunes desiccated of grass and set free to encroach on the delta plains. 


OASES OF THE MURG-AB DELTA. 


THE RIVER MURG-AB AND THE TYPE-PECULIARITIES OF THE MERV OASES, 
PAST AND PRESENT. 


Rising in the mountains of Afghanistan and swollen by their melting snow 
and ice, the River Murg-ab issues north onto the plains of Transcaspia. There 
it splits over a large subaerial delta 100 miles from the mountains and inclosed 
by dunes of sand wind-sifted from its river silt. This far-expanded sea of drifting 
barkhans merges into the desert of Kara Kum, making the great delta a seat of 
oases extreme in desert isolation. At one time the Murg-ab may have joined the 
Oxus, and in still more remote antiquity may have flowed direct into an Aralo- 
Caspian Sea. Its chief oases may, therefore, in the past have changed through 
type V, type II, and finally into type Ia; from lake shore to river bank, and at last 
the oases of an isolated delta. From the time when it failed to join either Oxus 
or Tedjend or reach a sea, the Murg-ab flowed to build an independent delta, and 
its oases were delta-oases, which, in the course of centuries, moved with the delta 
out and back, or perhaps always back if the river shortened with continuous 
desiccation. Here and there upon the clay surface, and beyond the limits now 
attained by water or even where the sand is drifting in, are seen mounds of clay 
and crumbled walls, the ruins of ancient towns and cities. 


OASES. Su 


Prosperity of oases is wrought by two great factors, water-supply and geo- 
graphical position. With the rivers of Central Asia, Murg-ab ranks fourth in 
volume and, unlike the Zerafshan, which feeds a myriad of oases along its course 
above ere nourishing the last, Murg-ab water flows to spread in full among the 
gardens of its delta. In it we find a river whose life-giving has been concentrated 
into one veined mass of gardens safely housed far out amid the dunes. The 
cities of Merv have thus long been favored with abundant water combined with 
sound protection by its wide surrounding desert. Alexander found it populous 
and full of wealth, and so did the Persians and afterwards the Arabs. And once 


4» Odontche Tepe: oe a5 

ae Siecieaely here oS. f 
Sultan Kala ;, ¢ one 
Qo Ghiaur Kala : 
° Bairaim-Ali 


Ne 


[3] Kurgan = P 
[Pees] High sandhills: 


| Low sand hills 


> 
Scale of miles 
10 20 





Fig. 488.—Map of the Murg-ab Delta. The Oasis of Merv. 


the caravans had opened out their routes across the sand, Merv ranked as one of 
the world’s great trade centers. Lying midway between the Caspian Sea and 
Roof of the World, it centers that whole region of ancient oases. By caravan 
from Meshed to Merv is less than 200 miles, from Khiva 300, from Paikent or 
Bokhara 190, from Samarkand 300, and from Balkh 275, measured along the 
route. 

In their peculiar state as oases of type Ia, those of Merv must have been 
especially sensitive to climatic change. To begin with, we must believe that 


332 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


a sufficient general increase of precipitation or even some change that would give 
rise to a larger proportion over the plains would make the desert into grass and 
thus break down the protective barrier. Also a large volume of water would 
penetrate farther out in the desert, a less volume less far, so that the delta with 
its oases, ever since there were any, must have varied in distance from the moun- 
tains, shifting out or back; responding to all greater cycles of climatic change. 
It is also evident that a river whose grade is for roo miles that of a vast silt-made 
plain must have been extremely sensitive to any warping or tilting of its channel. 
But even greater must have been the changes wrought by floods, the ever-shifting 
of distributary systems or even bursting of the whole river out to build elsewhere 
anew. If we could look back through foreshortened geologic time, the Murg-ab 
would appear in course and kind fast changing, a river living through a marvelous 
variety; we might first see it flowing to the ancient Aralo-Caspian, and as that sea 
is cloven into shrinking remnants, and rivers wandering free-ended join, we see 
the Murg-ab now with the Tedjend, now with the Oxus, then shrunken alone and 
ever shifting, with meanders made to break into new straightness; a silt-laden 
flow that coils to burst and glide in some new wandering way; a river which with 
its season’s flood may spread rare water in a wide sheet far out among the dunes 
and from that flood subside into new channels; for millenniums be led far to one 
side, leaving what was garden so by chance transformed to desert. 

Thus were the oases of Merv controlled by Nature’s ways and, though man 
could not prevent the effect of long-changed climate or much alter that of serious 
crustal movement, if it happened, the capricious behavior of delta distributaries 
used by him so stimulated his ingenuity that in time he got them under control. 
The Murg-ab with her silting distributaries proved a costly school, but graduated 
engineers whose works—canals, barrages, water-gates, and meters—were a marvel 
to antiquity. 

An oasis so bountifully favored, and whose civilization was so stimulated 
by trade relations and the natural education forced upon its type, as well as the 
protective isolation of that type, bore a populous and wealthy growth with varied 
culture; a growth that always recuperated rapidly after falling to the power of such 
organized attacks as those of Alexander, Genghis Khan, and Timur. 

The present outlines of bare clay upon the Murg-ab delta are irregularly 
pronged and have the aspect of a change or shrinkage of alluviating area, upon 
whose abandoned parts sand-dunes are drifting. In a general way it resembles 
a long leaf about 30 miles across, with two prongs—the left-hand one longest, 
and main axis pointing northwest to follow a general slope of the Turkoman Trough 
towards the Caspian. The convexity of alluviation is beautifully emphasized by 
its radiation of distributary veining and indicates a permanence of the present 
position of the delta for many centuries. 

At present it is impossible to indicate the whereabouts of Murg-ab’s most 
ancient oascs. Knowing that for some thousand years all Central Asia has been 
undergoing desiccation, our first thought is to look north beyond the limits now 
attained by water. There is, however, no reason to doubt that a climate even 


OASES. Bo0 


more arid than the present may have existed in still earlier time; indeed, we have 
seen that throughout the Pamir and its border ranges glaciers had receded back 
of where they are now, apparently having been subjected to a reaction of extreme 
dryness after the glacial period came to an end. The Murg-ab delta was then 
very likely south of its present position; and although the delta is the most favored 
spot, it is possible that some town of importance may have been upstream. ‘This, 
however, appears unlikely, for by tilt or warp its channel has long been cut beneath 
the plain and dunes have drifted to its banks where no water can be led now. 
It seems most likely that, if there were oases of importance to the south, they 
were of its delta there, and now cut through by its channel, since then prolonged. 
We have seen what a various existence the Murg-ab must have led through the 
long past, and shall therefore refrain from too much conjecturing as to the exact 
whereabouts of its more ancient oases. 


IRREGULARITIES OF THE DELTA SURFACE WROUGHT BY MAN'S DEBRIS OF OCCUPATION 
AND HIS CONTROL OF ALLUVIAL DEPOSITIONS. 


Turning to the ruins found upon the present delta and beyond, we find a 
field of great interest. Nowhere else in all Central Asia are ruins so abundant 
or so vast. In preservation they rank from Bairam Ali’s state of brick-robbed 
walls and still-standing battlements, with gates and inner streets that may yet be 
ridden through, to the round-worn mounds of far more ancient cities. In size 
they rank from mounds that count square miles and rise as platforms of stratified 
débris, one to five score feet above the plain, to low clay heaps that mark the 
ruins of past monuments and tombs. 

In all there are perhaps more than a hundred traceable towns and cities, 
some as much as 20 miles beyond the gardens of to-day; but for the most part they 
lie so far out on barren clay that only shepherd Turkomans know of them or wander 
among their heaps. Only Bairam Ali, Sultan Kala, and Ghiaur Kala are much 
visited or dug into by treasure hunters. They lie within the reach of cultivation, 
and through Ghiaur Kala’s outer walls, now trenched, water is led to irrigate a 
wide depression, which may once have been a market-place. Round the ruins 
of these three cities and Iskendar Kala the native romance dwells. 

Nearly a thousand square miles of the Murg-ab’s delta are still bare of sand 
and ruins are seen over all this wide expanse of clay. It isa field so vast of surface 
problems, mounds, depressions, walls half buried, and canals long since abandoned, 
that years of study might be carried on without digging. One ride of a few miles 
leaves the rider at a loss for explanations; he finds areas that stand 5 to 10 feet 
higher than the plain in general, as though irrigation had been carried on a long 
time there with the rest around left barren; others in irregularity resembling 
the mere tops of silt-buried towns; and low areas somewhat irregular in surface 
with small holes where water has leaked down as though to fill the loose débris 
of buried ruins. ‘Towards the delta margin he may come to a canal 5 to 10 feet 
deep and in the section thus exposed discover silt-buried dunes and find much 
sand has drifted, interlapping with alluvium. And the horizon round about 


334 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


him, flat and desolate, is broken here and there by distant towers, mounds, and 
citadels, that range far out into the faintly outlined forms which rise and vanish 
in mirage. 

The most comprehensive point of survey is found on the Erke Tepe, a high knoll 
or crumbled tower of Ghiaur Kala’s inner walls. This point stands central and 
120 feet above the plain, with all the citadels of ancient Merv ranged round for 20 
miles. Nearly all are flat-topped plateaus of varied height and length in profile; 
but sometimes, as the dust haze clears, far to the north more rounded forms are 
seen. 






Highest of all on the far horizon stands 
Odontche Tepe, nearly 8 miles due north. A 
superficial examination of this citadel revealed 
common wheel-turned pottery and glass, such 
as found on Ghiaur Kala, but its great height 
of 78 feet seemed promising of old layers to- 
wards the bottom. We attempted to explore 
it to the foundation with a shaft, but owing 
to its distance from water no men would stay 
there, though offered high wages, and our 
shaft was abandoned at a depth of only 44 
feet. The débris proved lean of remains, evi- 
dently having been rapidly built up with walls 
as a point of fortification and not by slow accu- 
mulation of occupation. It seems probable, 

Sai however, that in the construction of such a 

Gullies Sundriedbrick Clay walls citadel advantage was taken of some preex- 

Fig. 489.—Sketch-map of Odontche Tepe (Merv), iSting mound, so that old débris might have 

been penetrated at a greater depth. It never- 

theless proved a lesson in wind erosion. The adjacent area of culture mounds 

has been so rapidly worn down that a surface of erosion weathers pots and jars 
and cuts them clean off, flush with faintly outlined crumbling edges. 









Kit Y 


A 











| Ag 


ANALYSIS OF SHAFTS AT GHIAUR KALA.—THE DEPOSITS FROM MAN, WATER, AND WIND. 


As Ghiaur Kala was chosen for excavation it became important to concentrate 
physiographic shaft exploration upon that city and determine the relation between 
its growth and that of the plain through water and wind. For this work there was 
so little time that only a few shafts could be undertaken, and to assure the possi- 
bility of correlation it was necessary to have them fairly close together and in some 
simple relation to each other, to the main excavations, and to the oasis in general. 
With all these considerations in mind we located seven shafts on the profile line 
as shown on the map, three without and four within the city walls. 

Here, as at Anau, we find that culture-strata, irrigation silt, natural sedi- 
ments, and loess entered into the growth of the plain, but with the very important 
addition of large masses of flying sands, a fact to be expected with an oasis of 


PLATE 70. 























SE 9 Ray eee sea an eg edagaey Pea ane eel noes na eee amy sae SS SS SS SS SS = 





























WALLS 
| WALLS CITADEL WALLS Canal Canal <P yGanals 
z, ~ — ¥ E WS TIO 
SS CUOMO TIE TNT SI MITT ST TTT STII RT PRT TOIT ME SS 
TA TEER SSEEEPESSSEEUL Sse RST TRIOS Shaft 3 aes IIR ISSSSW// ST ha . Shaft 4 SI Shaft V 
Shaft | Shaft 2 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SCALE 
ie) 500 1000 1500 FEET 
——SS—_————— SSS 
GHIAUR KALA SHAFT PROFILE 
BES i a ee ees a Be Slope gs ee ee a a ERS ee ees Poe ee Fee ee ee ps ge Ee Nee le TE Re Veh Se oe oe 
Shaft 4 a 
ged 3 
SAF Sra ae 
ET pe ey se ts Re a el a, Nn S243 [0 O60 big jars. wes a a ye 
ae ££ yee, S&oe., wx 
rp POA : WW 
waa 3 Hyd = 
>. Ce pa | 
aS > lg. [o} 
4 So" . 
-g50'— — — — — — — — — — — O——— — — — — — — — mm: ete Siete 0 =e Shaft 7- — — — —Brick- yards — — ——— — 
a} tee S yp aia es ) a 6 
a J! AO = 
< 7 iy fiaceat : 
Seen 
$ W eis: {I OSOTEE 
ares) 4 —< 
dS Se ee ee See ay a Sa Nea 3 al a et cage y ee 
> 25 Rapid Rapid 
fe filling filling 
oO 








\ 
SSSSSANLE AES 


SS 





ne Sand dunes 


Irrigation 
sediments 


Stratified Bard filling of 
fine clays soft loam, with 
only occasional banding 


VERTICAL SCALE OF SHAFTS 
ie} 20 40 60 80 FEET 
aS as | ee es 


Loess 





® Shaft 6 


PLAN OF GHIAUR KALA SHAFT PROFILE 
SCALE 


Cn 
ae 


6000 FEET 


Ghiaur Kala Shaft Profile. 





OASES. 335 


type Ia. But the significant features in this section that may be comprehended at 
a glance are, first, the order of succession; second, the stratigraphic unconformity ; 
and third, the relatively small thickness of water-laid deposits. 

Beginning with culture-strata, we come face to face with several problems. 
Ghiaur Kala was a great city and one of fame. Its ruined walls inclose an area 
of more than 1.5 square miles, wherein there still remains a plateau of the débris 
of civilization rising to a height of over 50 feet above the surrounding desert, 
while the citadel itself attains a height of nearly 90 feet. Did occupation of this 
whole area begin on virgin ground, or was a part already occupied by some more 
ancient town when the greater city was laid out? Or, in either case, was the inner 
city founded at the same time as the whole? And after the whole city was laid 
out with its present outlines, was it occupied continuously till abandoned, or was 
it abandoned and reoccupied one or more times? 

In the shafts, as in the main excavations, there was found no sharp transition 
showing change of culture, and no one of them passed from culture into irrigation. 
Moreover, if there had been a town there before, we should expect to find its pot- 
tery or some trace, such as charcoal or ashes, in the natural sediments under 
irrigation and culture-strata, as was invariably the way at Anau; but such is not 
the case. Though our evidence is in part merely negative, the city of Ghiaur 
Kala seems to have been founded on a desert surface of sand-invaded loess-steppe, 
partially buried in alluvium, and irrigation seems to have started simultaneously 
withit. And the fact that genuine culture-strata attains the same thickness above 
the citadel’s foundation as it does in the plateau of the outer city is evidence 
pointing to a simultaneous occupation of both. 

With irrigation deposits we find that 12 feet is apparently the average depth, 
surprisingly little when considering the antiquity attributed to Merv; 15 feet 
was the average at Anau and we had thought of Merv as an oasis of such ancient 
importance that it must have introduced irrigation long before, and, with the whole 
Murg-ab to draw upon, been able to maintain bountifully rather than sparsely 
watered gardens from the beginning. Then what is the explanation of its shallow- 
ness? Obviously we must choose between three possibilities—either the rate of 
growth was less, or irrigation was introduced later, or it was in no given area carried 
on so uninterruptedly here, as at Anau. Surely there is silt enough in the river to 
give a growth as rapid as the Anau, and Ghiaur Kala was founded earlier than 
irrigation is supposed to have been introduced there. We are driven to the con- 
clusion that the gardens of Ghiaur Kala were of a wandering sort, shifting out and 
back and sideways around the city, according to complications in the canal system 
and conditions of soil. Large areas are in our days from time to time abandoned 
for fresh land on account of the efflorescence produced by prolonged irrigation with 
saline water. 

Natural sediments fall next in the order of antiquity. They lie directly under 
culture and irrigation silt and over dunes and loess. Here, again, we are surprised 
by shallowness. Except for the interesting masses of obviously rapid formation 
that appear to fill depressions of the old loess topography in shafts 6 and 7, the 


336 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL-ASIAN DESERTS AND OASES. 


natural sediments are nowhere over 10 or 15 feet thick. Their delicate laminations 
and extreme fineness of material differentially colored in thin bands of clay, for 
the most part buff and brown, are evidence of slow accumulation over a surface 
exposed to the oxidation of desert conditions. Although in a general way the 
growth of natural sediments came to an end with the beginning of irrigation and 
was superseded by that new kind of growth, we should expect to find layers similar 
to the natural at any horizon and interstratified with both culture and irrigation 
beds. From the time when one of the Murg-ab’s distributaries which fed Ghiaur 
Kala came under the control of man for irrigation, it ceased to be natural, 
1. e., became an artificial canal, and thenceforth any sediments deposited by its 
waters were other than natural. We have called those accumulating under the 
stratigraphically disturbing influences of cultivation irrigation sediments. Sedi- 
ments formed in choked-up canals, reservoirs, and abandoned fields may be termed 
canal sediments. The irregularities produced by occupation and irrigation of 
a plain, with such a gentle slope as the one with which we are dealing, inevitably 
result in the formation of extensive shallow depressions where, sooner or later, 
canal sediments accumulate. It is, then, canal sediments that have risen by the 
west wall and that form a 2-foot capping to the irrigation stratum cut by brick- 
yards southeast of the walls of Bairam Ali. 

Shafts 1, 11, and Iv penetrated characteristic dune-sand, so loose that shafts I 
and Iv had to be abandoned before the underlying loess was reached. But in 
shaft 11 we had just enough to give a key to the section and yet not enough to 
interfere with sinking, though the same mass attains a thickness of over 15 feet 
in the wall of the main excavation (lower digging), just to one side and a few feet 
above. Sand-dunes were evidently characteristic of the region before it was occu- 
pied and much of the city appears to overlie them. It is a significant fact that 
flying sands are found beneath both culture-strata and water-laid deposits, natural 
and artificial, and beneath it all is the loess. Every shaft that went deep enough 
found the great underlying mass of loess. Shaft 11 found it under dune-sand at 
—27 feet and sank 36 feet down into it, pure fine loess with vertical cleavage and 
calcareous concretions all the way down to where we stopped at water-level, 63 
feet below the surface. How much deeper it goes may be guessed, but there is 
no reason to doubt that it might be many hundred feet. 


THE STRATIGRAPHIC ORDER: (1) LOESS, (2) DUNE-SAND, (3) ALLUVIUM, EXPLAINED BY 
CLIMATIC CHANGE TO DRY, AND RECESSION OF THE DELTA. 


Now we are in position to correlate. The direct neighborhood of Ghiaur 
Kala had long been a loess steppe with topographical relief amounting to at least 
25 feet elevation between its summits and depressions. Asa result of some change 
in conditions it was invaded by flying sands, after which began the alluvial flooding 
and depositions over its lower porticns; and it was during this stage that the 
builders of Ghiaur Kala arrived to look upon a land of desert dunes and playas, 
with here and there a remnant of the old half-drowned loess topography. Upon 
one of these remnant loess masses rising about 16 feet above the flood-plain of a dis- 


OASES. SOL 


tributary canal, they built their citadel, piling it up with clods of clay to a height of 
34 feet, and around it threw up the massive walls of the inner city, of whose colossal 
height more than 70 feet still remains. That the outer city with its walls was 
laid out at the same time we have shown to be likely. So they built their city 
and from that time the distributary stream they had chosen is for physiographic 
purposes to be regarded as an irrigation canal, and the sediments laid down upon 
its flood-plain, irrigation and canal sediments, according to whether the area 
considered was under cultivation or not. While the débris of occupation rose 
within, these sediments grew upon the plain without the walls and to a certain 
extent continued growing after the abandonment of Ghiaur Kala in the eleventh 
century; for it was then that a new Merv, whose ruins are now called Sultan 
Sanjar, was founded but a few hundred yards away and water still found its 
way into this region. 

Loess, dune-sand, alluvium, and human débris is, therefore, the stratigraphic 
order of our physiography at Merv, the record of Nature and man, the effect for 
which we seek a cause. And of all time-sections it has been our fortune to study, 
this one is the most beautiful illustration of the organic changes that constitute 
the process of a great interior desert region effected by climatic change. 

During the accumulation of loess there must have been a sufficient precipi- 
tation to nourish grass over this area, but it is now too arid. It was then doubtless 
a time of greater precipitation over the Murg-ab’s catch-basin which would enable 
that river to penetrate farther into the desert giving it a delta north of the present. 
The flying sands derived from wind-work over the delta were probably accumu- 
lated into more or less stationary dunes around it, while most of the finer material 
settled as loess between it and the mountains. Then, I believe, a decrease in 
precipitation demolished the grass, set free the dunes to drift over all neighboring 
areas free from alluviation, while the river shrank with its delta, receding moun- 
tainwards to build over the dune-strown loess topography of Ghiaur Kala, and 
at this stage the city was founded. 


— ws 


a ~ 





PART VI. 
ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU 


AND 


THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS RELATION TO 
THE RACES OF DOMESTIC HORSES. 


By Dr. J. ULRICH DUERST. 
Professor in the University of Bern. 


[CHAPTERS XVI-XxX. PLATES 71-91.] 





CHAPTER XVI.—INTRODUCTION. 


The rich material sent to me by Mr. Raphael Pumpelly for examination 
consisted of a very large quantity of small fragments of bones, the putting together 
of which was attended with great difficulties. Fortunately the collecting and 
the preserving of the bones had been conducted with extreme care. It was thus 
possible both to form a picture of the fauna which lived during the forming 
of the different culture-strata at Anau in Turkestan, and to complete the recon- 
struction of some skulls and extremities. The whole collection of bones can be 
best classified, according to derivation, into those which come: (1) from the 
North Kurgan; (2) from the South Kurgan; and (3) from the citadel of Anau. 

The material from the North Kurgan is by far the most abundant. It is 
classified according to the system established at first by Messrs. Pumpelly and 
Hubert Schmidt, viz: Culture I, from 20 feet below the level of the plain to 15 
feet below the same; Culture II, from 15 feet below the plain to 25 feet above 
the same (—15 to +25 feet); Culture III, from +25 to +40 feet, 7. e., to the 
summit of the kurgan. This classification has, in the light of my investigations, 
shown itself to be justified, although these gentlemen have since abandoned it 
for archeological reasons, in favor of the more simple subdivision into two cultures, 
viz: (I) Afneolithic, —20 to +25 feet; (II) Copper Culture, +25 to +40 feet. 
Notwithstanding this change, I believe that the original classification should be 
maintained to the extent of dividing culture I as follows: (Ia) —20 to—1o feet; 
(1b) —10 to +25 feet. 

With this general explanation I shall present a review of the varieties of 
animals represented among the bones found in the kurgan. 

First of all, it is evident that these bones are wholly the remains from meals, 
this being shown not only by the manner in which they were broken, but also by 
the numerous traces of teeth and sharp instruments still to be seen on their sur- 
face. The bones of which I shall treat in the following pages are the best pieces 
only. All the indeterminable pieces and those of uncertain determination are 
wholly omitted. It would be difficult to give a trustworthy and convincing out- 
line of the approximate number of individuals, since the pieces are often too poorly 
preserved to permit us to see whether or not they belong to one and the same 
individual. Wecan, therefore, only estimate them as follows: 

Culture Ia@ contains about 150 good pieces of bones, including Equus sp., 
20 per cent; Bos sp., 27 per cent; Ovis sp., 22 per cent; Anttlope sp., 20 per cent; 
Cams 1 sp;, 1 per cent. 

Of culture Ib there are about 1,850 good bones. Here the representation 
of species is as follows: Equus, 28 per cent; Bos,25 per cent; Ovis, 25 per cent; Sus, 
12 per cent; Antilope, 7 per cent; Cervus, 1 per cent; Vulpes, 2 per cent. 

341 


342 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


Culture II, with 1,300 bones, shows the following relative distribution: Equus, 
25 per cent; Bos, 20 per cent; Ovrs, 20 per cent; Sus, 15 per cent; Capra, 10 
per cent; Camelus, 5 per cent; Canis II, 2 per cent; Antilope, 2 per cent; various 
wild animals, 1 per cent. 

The same relation as in culture II holds good also for the South Kurgan and 
the mosque-shafts of the citadel of Anau, except that here the sheep and goat 
are more prominent, while cattle and pigs are diminished in importance. 

The number of bones determined and numbered by me amounts to about 
3,500, of which unfortunately only a relatively small percentage, about 10 per cent, 
are skull bones, about 17 per cent lower jaws and teeth; about 5 per cent are 
vertebre and rump pieces and 71 per cent are bones from the extremities. 

As regards the preservation of the bones, we find here the same conditions 
as among the European occurrences. The greater part of the bones have a light 
vellow-brown color, though some from the very lowest layer, as for instance those 
of the wild ox, the gazelle, the wolf, and the horse, show a dark red-brown color. 
There also occur some burnt bones from the period 1b, which are calcined and 
colored greenish-black. Some bones are distinguished further by a rich content 
of saltpeter, which causes them continually to extract water from the atmosphere 
and remain in a constantly moist condition. The old fractures, which show the 
same coloration as the surfaces of the bones, in contrast to the yellowish-white 
color of fresh fractures, enable us to make certain observations concerning the way 
in which the Anau-li broke bones. But we must first mention a peculiarity of all 
the light-colored bones—their high porosity and capillarity. If, for instance, 
one takes the metacarpal or metatarsal bone of a horse, even as heavy as 200 
grams, or a piece of any other bone with much substantia compacta, and touches 
the tongue to a fresh fracture, the bone will hang on so firmly that it can be removed 
only with difficulty; and a place so small as to be touched only with the point 
of the tongue is able to support a weight of 200 grams or more. This is a pecu- 
liarity which I have found to exist to a similar extent only in the teeth of the 
fossilized Siberian mammoth; and it indicates a very great age for the bones 
of Anau. 

The breaking of the bones was carried to a greater extent than among the 
neolithic Europeans; for while these last broke open only the tubular bones of 
the horse, ox, deer, sheep, and pig, to suck out the marrow, and rarely the plate 
bones, as the caps of the skulls, horn-cores, ribs, etc., this was always done by the 
prehistoric Anau-li. All bones were broken into several pieces and many still 
show the distinct traces of sharp cutting instruments as well as of crushing teeth. 
The phalanx bones of the horse, ox, sheep, and pig escaped this fate, as did the 
horn-cores of the Gazella subgutturosa, of which the structure is too hard and the 
texture too compact to offer any temptation to break them open for marrow. 

Little is to be seen here of a definite method of breaking bones, such as 
described by Rtitimeyer for the dwellers in the Swiss pile-dwellings, and by me 
for the Germans of the Schlossberg, as the tubular bones and plate bones, lower 
jaws, and other cranial pieces are of an entirely different shape. Of the tubular 


INTRODUCTION. 343 


bones, chiefly the distal and proximal ends are found, and the shaft is broken 
in many pieces, which it is rarely possible to put together to complete the bone; 
so that it would seem that the bones were for the most part broken with a dull 
instrument. Only in culture periods Ib and II do we find more frequent traces of 
scraping and cutting done with sharp instruments. In connection with the cranial 
pieces it is to be mentioned that all skulls were split through the middle. What I 
just said also applies here. In culture Id for the first time, and in period II, we 
find a sharp cut through the skulls of horses and of sheep. Skulls of period Ia 
and the beginning of period Ib were probably all broken with dull instruments; 
and for this reason we do not find any linear fractures, but merely jagged breaks, 
which in young animals follow the sutures. 

Lastly, as regards the age of the animals of which we have the bones, it is 
to be noticed that really old animals do not occur, with the exception of some 
horses, an ox, and some pigs, sheep, and gazelles. The remaining animals are 
for the greater part adult, except that among the sheep and pigs there is a great 
quantity of bones of very young animals—small porklings and lambs. This is 
confirmed by the abundant occurrence of milk teeth and epiphyses of the extrem- 
ity bones. It is particularly important to observe that more than 95 per cent 
of the bones of very young animals belong to uppermost layers of the period 
Ib and period II; from which it would seem proper to draw the conclusion that 
this consumption of young animals indicates herds of considerable size. The 
contrast to the pile-dwellers of Europe and the Germans of Schlossberg is very 
evident, since among these Europeans the appearance of young animals on the 
table was relatively rare. 

The investigation of these bones lasted from the autumn of 1904 to the spring 
of 1907, and was carried on according to the methods applied in former researches. 
For their comparison with recent bones I have used my own collection, as well 
as those of the museums in Bern, Vienna, London, and Berlin. Besides this, 
my friend, M. Paul Gervais, in Paris, very kindly made for me any necessary meas- 
urements on the skeletons in the collection of the Myseum of Natural History 
in Paris. For comparison with subfossil bones I have, in addition to the results 
of my own previous investigations and the measurements given in the literature 
on the subject, the collection of the Museum Society in Teplitz, including bones 
from fifty localities in Bohemia, sent to me at the same time for determination 
and labeling. 

It only remains for me to express publicly to Prof. Raphael Pumpelly my 
warmest thanks for the pleasure he has given me by intrusting to me the study 
of the bones from such an extremely interesting locality, as well as for the kindness 
with which he assumed the tedious task of correcting and translating this report, 
which I had written partly in English and partly in German. 

I am also indebted to the directors and managers of the museums I have 
named, and especially to Professor Studer, director of the Museum fiir Naturkunde 
at Bern, for assistance in preparing this memoir. 


CHAPTER XVIL. 


Ordo CARNIVORA. 
CANID&. 


The Canide are abundantly represented among the bones from Anau; never- 
theless their determination is not always easy. The animal of which we find 
the best-preserved bones, both complete skulls and bones of the trunk and of the 
extremities, is the fox. 

Canis vulpes Linneus, Vulpes montana (2?) Pearson, (See plate 71, figs. 3-13.) 

We find in the Anau kurgan two skulls in a very perfect state of preservation 
and 12 bones of the extremities as well as cervical vertebre. Thus we can make 
an exact determination of this animal. 

As the measurements of the following list will show, the foxes of Anau were 
not as large as those of Germany, but are closely similar to a recent fox from 
Tor on the Red Sea, whose skull is preserved in the Museum at Bern. The neolithic 
fox skull of the Swiss pile-dwellings of Schaffis is also smaller and nearly agrees 
with another skull from Sinai. The size of these fox skulls must not be taken 
as indicating a difference in species, however, for it is quite possibly attributable 
to a difference of age and sex. 

Pearson,* in describing his Vulpes montana, which probably occurs also in 
Turkestan, was not able to show any osteological difference between it and the 
common fox; the only difference being in the skin. Thus we may assume, though 
without possibility of confirmation, that we have here also the mountain fox 
(Vulpes montana Pearson), which is surely only a variety of the common fox. 
The bones here shown are certainly not those of an interloper of modern times, 
as one might suppose from the perfect state of their preservation. They are, 
to judge from the structure of the bone material, as old as the other bones of the 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters.) 

















NaN Tibia, Radius, 

Extremity bones. —6 feet, 426 feet, ey feet, +23 feet, 

No. 392. No. 871. Ds: No. 560. 
MRR Me Wee retary soe o Balas prne ile airs ew alee a8) «Sino hols 112 126 123 bgt 
Se ter iC LORUMNAL CNG arden ae Sperm daten os 58 3 21 24 19 14 
Wemeterot proximallend. ony. sists se eta tei 7 8 21 20 
Warttirot tiediai part same 2s yisesyriaia sels 3) ace eo. 6 7 5 6 
Pemerer OF median Parl. <5 ..2.66 seep ewe a0 5 6 6 7 
Witdthiotr distal "MG as) ae ct sietrs se sreke sinner e aie a 17 18 12 18 
Mramietenordistalvend ty. cays yote eke enatetaieise cre et 18 21 8 13 



































*On the Canis vulpes montana, Bengal, Journal Asiat. Soc., Iv, 1835, Pp. 324. 
345 


346 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters).—Continued, 
































l 
North Kurgan, Fox f Cc f Fox from 
Anau, +17 ft. a o ts Peaa inte OX! neolithic Fox from 
Skull. See ( cin.) from | pile-dwelling| Sinai (Mus. 
y Schaffis Bern). 
No. 95. | No. 94. | (Mus. Bern). |(coll. Duerst). (Mus. Bern) 

Basilarlengthic nemesis eee 123 124 122 128 114 113 
Basicraniala xis ee 50 51 50 54 49 46 
Bastiacialiaxise wearin wi ae 69 72 65 61 
Lengthvotinasalian en ot oe 47 ay MS 46 49 39 42 
Widthtof/nasaliacen cen. 8 9 8 9 7 9 
Lengthiotppalatesnc, aes 66 Bayt 65 69 58 57 
Width of palate behind pre- 

niolar 4s. See nee 22 22 21 23 20 oi 
Greatest width of skull...... 44 48 44 44 41 42 
Width on meatus auditorius 

CXUCLNUNG fh ay weasel ieee ie 42 45 42 45 42 42 
Width on arcus zygomaticus. . 66 ne 66 72 68 78 
Least dimension of temporal. . 19 19 21 20 20 20 
Width between proximal or- 

bitals A, Vea ee 29 28 30 32 30 31 
Least dimension between the 

interior borders of orbits. . ok oe 22 Hy 24 BA 
Length of cavitas cerebralis. . 70 69 fi 76 69 72 
Lengchiottacesn. ss seneeaie 62 64 +» 63 67 Scat 62 
Widthvotsk ttl een 39 42 40 42 35 
Widthiof occiput: 2... rae 42 45 42 45 42 
Length of lower jaw......... 97 oe gI 
Length of molars of lower jaw 57 : 48 























layers in which they are found; but their perfect condition seems to indicate 
either that the ancient inhabitants did not care to crush these bones or that the 


foxes died while searching for food after the destruction of the dwellings of the 
layer in which they were found. 


Canis lupus Linnzus (Canis pallipes Sykes[?]). (See plate 71, figs. 1 and 2.) 

In the eneolithic culture-period we find at +8 feet three remains belonging 
apparently to the same animal. ‘These are a half of a right upper jaw, a part 
of the right frontal bone, and the anterior part of the right branch of a lower jaw. 
The dark-brown color of these three bones seems to confirm the supposition that 
they belong to the same individual. The upper jaw is distinguished by a short 
row of teeth. In this again the premolars form a relatively short row and the 
carnassial tooth is relatively very large. If we make the dental row equal to 100, 
the length of the carnassial tooth is 30 per cent and that of the three premolars 
44 per cent. Among wolves, both European, Indian, and American, Studer finds 
the first relation varying between 25 and 29 per cent; only in a Canis hodophylax 
from Japan is the relation 31.4 per cent. ‘The relation of the three premolars to 
the whole row of back teeth amounts among wolves to from 43.5 to 49 per cent, 
and in Canis hodophylax 40 per cent. In our case, however, it is 44 per cent, in 
which the proportion falls into line with those of the wolves. 

This Anau canine was without doubt a wolf whose muzzle is somewhat short, 
the premolars are small, while the carnassial tooth is large, although the anterior 
inner protuberance of the carnassial tooth is very slightly developed. Interstitial 





Fic. 1. Facial part of skull of wolf (Canis lupus Linn.). 
2. Part of lower jaw of Canis lupus. 
3, Lower jaw, left branch, of fox (C. vulpes). 
4-6. Skulls of foxes (C. vulpes Linn.), 
7. Left branch of lower jaw. 
8. Atlas (first vertebra cervicalis), 


PEAT Eales 








1. 
12. 
13, 





Scapula. 

Humerus of young individual, posterior epiphysis 
wanting. 

Femur of large individual. 

Femur of smaller individual, 

Tibia, 





UBRANY 


2 
2 
4 


OF THE 


UNIVERSITY OF 


5 PEATEs 72: 


H 
{ 
i 
i 
4 
| 








Fic. 4. Corpus of lower jaw of Sus. 
5. Rest of right part of upper maxilla. 
. Posterior part of left branch of lower jaw of Sus. 


. Tibia of Sus with mark of gnawing. 
Right metatarsus medius of Sus. 


Fic, 1. Canis matris optime skull from Anau (restored). 

2. Canis matris optime skull from Kutterschitz in 
Bohemia. Lower jaw from individual from Gross 
Czernosek a. Elbe. Bronze Period. Museum at 
Teplitz (Bohemia). 

3. Brain skull of Sus palusirts. 
cristatus, plate 80, fig. 1.) 


Onn 


(Compare with Sus 


UBhaRY ; | . - 
OF THE ‘ 
UNIVERSITY OF ILUNOIS. — 





ORDO CARNIVORA. 347 


spaces between the premolars are absolutely wanting, while they are very largely 
developed in the skull of a wolf from Peking. ‘This character is derived from the 
greater shortness of the muzzle, whose length is that of Canis pallipes. ‘The second 
molar is also strongly developed. Thus the remains of the upper jaw are charac- 
terized as belonging to a wolf. The lower jaw, however, contributes still more 
proof. 

So far the bones might still possibly belong to Cuon alpinus Pallas, since the 
dimensions of the teeth are similar, especially as regards the carnassial tooth, 
which for the most part is 21 mm. long (21.2 to 21.5, according to Nehring). But 
the lower jaw decides clearly in favor of the wolf, since the talon of the first molar 
shows two very stout conical points. In the Cuon there is invariably only one 
conical point. The accompanying measurements explain these relations. The 
Anau wolf stands apparently nearest to the Indian wolf or Canis pallipes Sykes. 
Indeed, it is not at all unlikely that Canis pallipes formerly existed in the district 
of Anau and on the Kopet Dagh. In any event it is certain that the Indian 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 




















Length | Length of | Width of | Length | Width | Length | Width 
Upper jaw. of tooth | carnassial | carnassial of of of of | 
range. tooth. tooth. | molar 4.) molar 4.) molar 3.| molar 3.) 
PATI all ao O LOCUM Asatte) ole cis. sheers ss 70 21 10 14 16 8 12 
Canis lupus Linnezus, Russia 
MUS ee ESOT ID) sheer vis Euselc, sows at ers 71 20 II i 17 7 12 
Canis pallipes Sykes, India (Mus. 
London), after Studer........ Es 21 IO Hg) | 
Cuon alpinus Pallas (after 
STRIVE @) Rg. Sede a aaielier a ae en 67 21 Ser 15 15 7 10 
Canis lupus Linneus, killed near 
Peking (coll. Duerst)......... 81 21 mT 17 18 8 12 
Canis poutiatini (after Studer)... 65 18 abe 
Canis inostranzewr (after Studer).. 67 19.5 





























buffalo (Bubalus arnee Kerr) still existed in historical times in northern Persia 
and Mesopotamia; and if these, why may not Camis pallipes also have had a wide 
geographical range? According to the view of Th. Studer,* however, this is not 
at all necessary, for according to exact researches the different species of wolves 
present only local forms which are without profound differences. Therefore, 
we will characterize the wolf of Anau only in general terms as Canis lupus Linneeus. 
We will, however, emphasize the fact that it harmonizes best with Cants pallipes 
Sykes. 
We have not, however, done with the bones of the Canidz of the Anau kurgans. 
We find in the strata between +28 and +36 feet a perfectly preserved skull with 
the superior maxilla belonging to it, as well as two lower jaw branches, one right 
and one left, which possibly belong together. These bones differ in essentials 
from those of the wolf in numerous ways, for which reason they can not belong 
to the wild Canidze; we have here to do with a tame animal, the domestic dog. 





* The Prehistoric Dogs. Abhand. Schweiz. paleont. Gesell., p. 9. Zitirich, rgor. 


348 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


Canis familiaris matris optime Jeitteles. (See plate 72, figs. rand 2.) 

I have with great care put together the remains of the skull found at +28 
feet and thus reconstructed the whole skull as shown in plate 72, fig. 1. The 
length of the skullis 164 mm. Therefore, this dog belongs to the dogs of medium 
size. The skull is relatively low and approaches in this respect Canis poutiatini 
Studer, and the dingo. It is but little developed in width and is arched. Also, 
in the temporal region it is but slightly concave. The sagittal-muscle ridge is 
strongly developed. The tympanic cavities are relatively small, blistery, and 
without the usual keel-shaped ridge. The face shows a slight zygomatic arch 
and relatively broad, short palate. The relation of the dental arch of the upper 
jaw is as follows: The length of the carnassial tooth is 25 per cent of the whole row 
of back teeth, that of the three premolars is 42.5 per cent. We have, therefore, 
to do with the genuine dog. The carnassial tooth, however, has only an absolute 
length of 17 mm. and a width of 8 mm., which indicates a house-dog. The other 
cranial measurements are easily seen in the following table, in which the skull 
is compared with various others of similar size, of wild and domestic Canide. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 






































s F Sere We . hoe 
50 Australian Pariah dogs, = ola g| Bohemia, Canis | mes ae 
| Dingo, after Studer. 22/3 a i eee $5 2 oe 
Mm after © ao us. Teplitz, |.§°9 = 0 
as Studer ‘so/2o BBL. SY 
> +. Male. ‘Female.; din = hte, T'schont- WHI So ee 

: > &|3 6 schitz ‘ ~@) a! S38 
- wTsiRS : Briesen | d. ¢d| G&, 
23 as| Ny a ere La Tene. | : %3| 2s 
2a < De ~~ well- . =“ 
No. 4.|No. 3.|India| Egypt| Egypt.|O Se &| % Q2rxriaH] os 
ae 4 3.) Sypt) hsyp mS Ey ings. A IeZ2) es 
: 3 
Basilar lengthier oe ee 164 166 | 165 |161 167 157 |165 |164 168 164 |164 |169 |208 
Length Of palate... werner 88 gl 92 | 90 94 84 | 91 | 91 94 91 |:90 | [Lares 
Width of palate.......... 50 49 Sol eag 50 47 | 46 | 50 49 49.) 50 | ..0s3 
| Greatest width of skull....) 57 Sa SS ae ay 58 56 | 62 | 58 56 56 | 56 | 570) S765 
Width of meatus auditorius 
externus........... ree+| 57-5 56 574 5205 55 50 | 60 | 52 59 60 | 60 | 58 | 75 
Widthonarcuszygomaticus |102 TOS hres seh ke Le 98 | .. |104 104 Pe eerie iio 
Least dimensions between 
inferior borders of orbits | 37 34 fell Wet 2 39 32.1 35 34 26 ae 
Heightofskull’ ei see ae 54 52 Sr St 59 53 | 56 | 58 55 57 | 58 
Length of teeth pet teen 69 O44 "62" ha alan 65 63 | 66 | 66 68 61 | 61 
Length of carnassial tooth,| 17 18 07 acute 17 18 | 18 | 18 18 15 | 18 
Length of molars. one: 18 18 OA es 18 19 | 20 | 20 17 15 | 18 
Width of carnassial tooth .| 9 | seal eeee}oees 9 Op Ito 8 7 elle 
Basicranial axis..........| 46 | 49 48 | 43 47 SA ASS ARS 48 rch ct dle 2. 
Basifacialtaxismem sss eae LI2S MSI 7 seer 1S 120 113 |120 |119 120 Hy tiee TOA 
| 






































After long and careful consideration I give below certain conclusions which 
are based on these comparative measurements and on the direct comparison 
of the Anau skull with the collection of dog skulls in the museum at Bern, and 
also especially with the rich collection of subfossil Bohemian dog skulls, contain- 
ing abundant material from 50 different Bohemian localities, which the Museum 
Society in Teplitz had the kindness to intrust to me for determination and pub- 
lication. 


ORDO CARNIVORA. 349 


As remarked by Prof. Th. Studer, to whom I gave simply the occipital bone 
and piece of skull of the still unreconstructed cranium for examination, this piece 
of the skull possesses in a high degree the peculiarity and character of the dingo 
or the pariah dog. However, after closer comparison made later with the com- 
pletely reconstructed skull, I was able to decide that it has a very strongly marked 
resemblance to the European shepherd-dog, especially in the facial part. The 
only differences that this skull shows from the Canis matris optime of Jeitteles 
are that the upper jaw is less pointed and the palate a little broader than in the 
latter. This means that the muzzle of the Anau dog was somewhat shorter and 
broader than that of the prehistoric European shepherd-dog. As appears from 
the measurements, indeed, the skulls of the dingo and pariah dog agree very well 
with those of the Anau dog. Here, too, the muzzle is always a little longer and 
narrower, and the zygomatic arch a little wider than in our dog. Nevertheless, 
these differences are not great. They are even smaller than those produced by 
the difference in sex between two upper Egyptian pariah dogs published by Studer. 

That the Anau dog belongs to the shepherd-dog or to the pariah dog, which 
resembles the shepherd-dog, will be made clear by the following relations of the 
basicranial axis to the basifacial axis. 


Table showing relations between the basicramal axis and the bastfacial axis expressed in proportions to 100, 





























. | Anau dog, | 
gx opent pene Pariah dog. Dingo. Shepherd-dog. | North— 
‘sma iste Kurgan. 
30.5 36.3 36.5 Nepaul. 281 40 Germany. 41.8 
36.8 38.3 39.0 Egypt. Ala3 41.9 France. 
B77 ONG, 39.1 Egypt. 41.9 41.9 Canis matris optime fossil. | 
85.7 39.4 39.8 Bengal. 
B0n1 39.8 Sumatra. 
40.8 Egypt. | 








Here again it is clear that the Anau dog can have nothing to do with the 
wolves or wolf-dogs, in which the basicranial axis is 36 to 39 per cent of the basi- 
facial axis, or with the hound, in which this is 35 to 37 per cent. 

What we deduced, from direct measurements as to the form and size of the 
skull, is thus clearly illustrated in these very constant ratios; and it appears that 
our dog, standing near to the dingo as well as to the small Russian fossil wild dog, 
(Cams poutiatint), must be assigned to the shepherd-dogs or to the pariah dogs 
which resemble them. This relation is very well shown further in the ratio between 
the cranial height and length, which is clearly expressed in the following table: 


Table showing the cranial height expressed in percentages of the length. 











Indian wolf. Dingo. Shepherd-dog. Pariah dog, 
Bibel Pe 30.9 32.7 Canis matris optima, fossil dog. 31.7 Nepaul. 
27.8 hen 32.9 Anau dog. 33.8 Egypt. 
28 ion 33.5 France. 35.0 Egypt. 
30.2 Sialece 34.5 Germany. ae 




















350 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


According to the table the skull from Anau ranks directly behind the sub- 
fossil cranium from Olmiitz, the original skull of Jeitteles. 

The domesticated dog of Anau belongs accordingly to the subspecies of Canis 
jamiliaris matris optime in a form which stands craniologically very near to the dingo 
and to Canis poutiatint Studer, but which rs distinguished by a rather broad muzzle. 

But how does Canis matris optime come to be among the inhabitants of 
the Anau kurgans? Judging from the very scant material thus far in hand, there 
can be no question that this dog did not originate at Anau during the first culture 
period. It is much more probable that it came to Anau with the people who 
brought thither the camel and the goat. 

But how came the dog in the possession of that people, and whence came 
they? These questions can not be answered from the material in hand. One 
would have to know with certainty whether the pariah dog, the modern street 
dog of the East, which we know on the oldest monuments of Egypt, is directly 
related to the shepherd-dog. 

Th. Studer* assumes merely a parallelism in development and derives the 
pariah dog direct from the dingo, which he considers to have been distributed 
in former times over all southern Asia, where it still occurred even in most recent 
times in the Tengger Mountains of Java. He believes, further, that in Eurasia 
in the diluvial period there existed a small wild dog which he has recently designated 
Canis poutiatini. ‘This species is said to have shown itself to be more easily tamed 
than the wolf and from this he derives, on the one hand, Canis palustris and on 
the other the shepherd-dog. Jeittelest himself thought that the Canis matris 
optime might have been derived from the Indian wolf (Canis pallipes Sykes), 
and assumes that the domestication of this animal took place in ancient Iran. 
Our finds in Anau might seem to lend a greater degree of probability to this idea, 
but the direct measurements and ratios given above show that the Indian wolf 
stands very far from the Anau dog. We must, therefore, waver between two 
opinions, namely, that the theory advanced by Studer,t in which he derives the 
shepherd-dog from a paleolithic dog of Russia (Canis poutiatint) is correct; or 
that the dingo, which we have represented as being similar to our dog from Anau, 
must have lived in southern Asia in some form, and that from it both the pariah 
dog and the shepherd-dog have descended. 

Which view is correct we can not, as I have already said, decide with certainty 
from the Anau remains alone. Derivation from Canis poutiatini is favored not 
only by the similarity in the measurements but also by the fact that the dog was 
brought to Anau by a people who imported the camel and the goat. Considering 
the localities of fossil remains thus far found, and the present geographical dis- 
tribution of these animals, it is possible that the camel came from the south or 
east, and the goat from the south or west, since its wild form now lives in Persia 





*Ueber den deutschen Schaeferhund und einigen kynologischen Fragen. Mitteilungen Naturf, Gesell., 
[sp ease lefciash aeeenh J 

{ Cf. Jeitteles, Die vorgesch. Altert. d. Stadt Olmiitz, pp. 56-80. Wien, 1872. Keller, Die Abstam- 
mung d. aeltesten Haustiere, p. 55. Ziirich, 1902. 

tZoolog. Anzeiger, Bd. xxIx, 1, pp. 27-30. 


ORDO CARNIVORA. 351 


and the Caucasus. The dog, however, may have come either from the sphere of 
Indian culture or from Russia; although, according to Studer, a Siberian origin 
is possible. 

On the other hand an Iranian or Indian domestication or an autochthonous 
origin of the house-dog, shown by the presence in the lowest neolithic layers of 
the Anau kurgan of Canis pallipes or a similar wolf, might support a very plausible 
hypothesis based on former philological or archeological researches. ‘This would 
not apply especially to the domestication of Camis pallipes, but to that of the 
dingo or another wild dog of Turkestan as well. Perhaps later excavations by 
Mr. Pumpelly,; possibly in strata of a still earlier period, will bring to light the 
bones of house-dogs; for the fact that none are known from the first period is no 
proof that they may not be found. It would, in fact, seem almost necessary that 
the Anau-li should have had, with their great herds of sheep and cattle in eneo- 
lithic time, a domestic dog that originated in the same neighborhood. 

According to Hommel* the different peoples speaking the Turko-Tartaric 
languages must have had in common an autochthonous dog, which was designated 
by the radical word kuc. Budenzf also calls attention to the original character 
of this designation and concedes the hypothesis of an autochthonous domesti- 
cation of the dog in the earliest times of the development of the Altaic culture. 
Vambéryt also sees an evidence of the high age of Altaic domestication of the dog 
in the myth of the Kirghiz, who derive themselves from the dog through an unnat- 
ural connection with forty maidens. 

Not only is the shepherd-dog thought by some to have originated in Iran, 
but H. Kraemer$ and C. Keller|| attempt to derive most of the European mastiffs 
—at least the Canis molossus of the ancients and the St. Bernard—from Tibet. 

Albrecht,‘] however, shows from a large stock of philological data that the 
Tibetans were not responsible for this domestication but rather the people who 
lived to the west and south of Tibet; and that the name of the dog argues against 
a domestication in Tibet, for in the west it is kukurra, while in Tibet it is kh. 
Albrecht believes, therefore, in two domestications, one of which produced a large 
dog (kukurra), in the west, and a smaller one (khz), in Tibet, which were then 
exchanged and crossed among the respective peoples. 

If, lastly, we would look for the shepherd-dog of the East, which might pos- 
sibly have been derived from the dog of Anau, we must turn our eyes to where 
the earliest rays of the light of history penetrate the prehistoric darkness—to 
Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt. 

The Assyrian monuments do not introduce us to more than two varieties 
of the dog—the large and powerful mastiff, used in the chase of great animals, 
and the grayhound, used in coursing the hare. Other breeds, however, were 





* Die Namen d. Sdugetiere bei den suedsemit. Voelkern, p. 441. 

+ Magyar-Ugor ésszehasonlito szotar, 1881, p. 74. 

¢ Die prim. Kultur des turko-tatarischen Volkes, p. 197. Leipzig, 1879. 

§Die Haustierfunde von Vindonissa, Revue zoolog., tome 7, pp. 143-272; and Die Abstammung des 
Bernhardiner, Globus, pp. 171-188, 1904. 

|| Die Abstammung der aeltesten Haustiere, p. 76. Ziirich, 1902. 

{ Zur aeltesten Geschichte des Hundes, pp. 55-56. Miinchen, 1903. 


oe ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


doubtless known to the inhabitants of Assyria and Babylonia. In the bilingual 
lists which give all words in Accadian and Assyrian, we find the Assyrian word 
na-adh-ru, ‘‘the protecting dog,’’ with the Accadian equivalent, sega lik-ka-gab-a, 
which probably means “the good mouth-opening dog;’’ then follows the Assyrian 
cab-bi-luv, from “‘to tie up’”’ or “chain up;’’ represented by the same /lik-ka-gab-a. 
Houghton,* who gives these translations, thinks that na-adh-ru and cab-bi-luv 
both stand for some strong dog, which was used both as a watch-dog to guard 
the house and as a shepherd-dog to guard the flocks. The idea embodied in the 
Assyrian and Accadian words cab-bi-luv and lik-ka-gab-a, “the chained-up mouth- 
opening dog,’’ answers well to a house-dog; and the notion conveyed by the 
Assyrian and Accadian words, na-adh-ru and sega, “the good protecting dog,”’ 
is quite descriptive of the same kind of dog when used as a shepherd-dog. 

One of the best representations of “the good protecting dog’’ is on the cylinder 
seal of Bel-Bin (see tailpiece at end of chapter).f This dog seems to be of a large, 
powerful breed, with his tail rolled up and his ears drooping down. Another 
shepherd-dog is represented on a cylinder-seal of the Clercq collection.t The 
other dogs of the Babylonians and Assyrians were all intended for the chase, 
from the very large mastiff to the swift grayhound. 

Even to-day one still finds in those regions, extending as far as Asia Minor, 
a large shepherd-dog of wolf-like appearance, used, as was the case among the 
Assyrians, to guard houses and protect the flocks from wild animals. One can 
form some idea of the size and savage character of this recent form from the 
report of Diest: ‘In Delilerkoi I had a fight with a dozen savage shepherd-dogs 
which were about as large as my little horse and almost pulled me from my saddle.”’ 

We may then assume that the Assyro-Babylonian culture did not derive the 
Canis matris optime from the later inhabitants of Anau; the size of the Assyro- 
Babylonian dog favoring rather Albrecht’s opinion of the origin of both a large 
and a small dog in Central Asia, the large dog being that of the ancient Babylonians 
and Assyrians. 

If we turn now to the Egyptian culture, thinking perhaps to find there traces 
of Canis matris optime, the monuments show us several types which correspond 
in size and shape to that animal. The real shepherd-dogs of Egypt as we find 
them, for instance, in painting and sculpture at Sakarah,|| and in the pyramids 
of Gizeh,{ often represented with shepherds, seem to have belonged to the gray- 
hound form. On the other hand, there frequently occurs a somewhat larger, 
short-muzzled, smooth-haired dog which seems to correspond well with the Anau 
dog. Good pictures of this animal have been given by Rosellini, but the best 
representation is the statue executed in black marble in the museum of the Louvre 
in Paris, the dog represented here having erect ears and a rather short head (plate 








*On the Mammalia of the Assyrian Sculptures, Trans. Bibl. Arch., 1877. 

+ Ménant, Rech. sur la Glyptique Orientale, partie 1, p. 205, fig. 137. 

tCatalogue de Clercq, plate 111, fig. 24; Description, p. 40. 

§ Petermann’s Mitteilungen, Erg. Heft 94, p. 64. 

|| Perrot and Chipiez,‘‘ Bergers aux champs,’’ Histoire de |’ Art dans 1’ Antiquité, tome 1,1’ Egypte, p. 36. 
{{ Lepsius, Bd. vir, Abt. 1, Blatt 9, Grab. 75, Ostwand. 


ORDO CARNIVORA. 


953 


79, fig. 1).* A mummied skull of the same animal is in the collection of the British 


Museum in London. 


Aside from these facts I am able to give exact cranial comparison because 
among the skulls of Jeitteles’s collection in the k. k. Hofmuseum in Vienna which 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 





























































































































Subfossil dogs Recent pariah dogs | 
(Mus. Vienna).* (Mus. Vienna). 
North |— —— — ee eee 
a ; Kurgan, Egypt. 
Skulls. renee sYP | 
+28 ft.) From | From | Greece. | Abydos. Wadi-Halfa. | 
rock-tomb | tomb at | 
at Sifit.t | Thebes.t{ 
ASIAte LOH OLS ea ce ay fore ie ease: ole estes ns 164 144, eat 173 161 162 
Superior length of skull............:- 182 LGt ee LOG 197 178 185 
et tte GlatrOMt als. ieye oc. shas exrei-de- 0) IA 55 57 61 53 55 
pete Ula Ol PAxIetall sec 27 ef!s sis cias aie 5 oo + 46 47 43 52 45 46 
rete Ob asa evs. Wy aiely sn Sos yenavareuevs aber vars Piste 59 66 | 72 66 71 
WER O AIA TCI. cr a aieiids sucusierett ccs. & 50 48 46 | 53 46 47 
Nirclenvorimarietall dai... rere cams uae se 57 56 56 58 56 55 
Width between proximal orbitals of 
PEOU Ce om eee ducted ocr ckehe creat | 54 52 55 47 47 | 
(reatest width of nasals. .;......:¢... C7) 18 18 16 | 1%) 
Least width between inferior borders of 
CATAL S OY 12 eee TE Wedteh teers ee hisses ls eg; 38 38 37 31 31 
Greatest height of occipital............ 46 46 47 50 | 47 51 
Greatest width of occipital........... 60 62 62 67 60 63 
Width on arcus zygomaticus........... 102 97 99 | 105 (?) 104 IOI 
Width of muzzle before front premolar 41 35 35 AT a 36 38 
Ratio of width of ‘occipital triangle to |-————_| ——___| —— —- | 
height, expressed in proportions to 100. 77 74 70: 7 75 78 79 
Anat. Pirets gaits Wolf fr om | Ree | ae | 
Lower jaw. ) poutia-- Canis airy | cent | Canis | 
Wolf- Canis matris optime. tint.§ | matris | P cf ut? | wolf, ‘inostran-| 
Tired 2am {| S08: optime. ||, 8s. 2ewt. 
Length from proximal angulare 145 140 139 | 152 197 145 | 
Length from proximal articu- | | | / 
LALGEEMS fei ys: oie se aveks escee TAF NTAAG Es 140 62 Frc 
Length of molars............ 72) 73 | 79 Sle teolllN o She 100 78 | 
Length of toothless space be- | 
fore premolar Th. .'.s.. ss 5 yy CE ee J pti Wha be = Gis 5 
Height of vertical branch.... ST ese aws: te 54 62 78 | 
Height of horizontal branch 
Behind molar. .....-..05 6 30 a5 -125.|.aF | 23) 2 26.5 27 34 26 
Bengt Of Molar... nk es ae 23 2O je 2T*| 522-227 20 5ia 2 375 34 21 
Length of symphysis........ 25 Che Sai Mleexe 22 Be | 








* Determined as Canis matris optime by Jeitteles himself. 


2 After Studer. After Jeitteles. 








{Collected by Dr. Lauth. 


al 


{Collected by Schneider, 


was open to me through the kindness of the Custos Kittl, there are several mum- 
mied skulls from Egypt which, according to the accompanying labels and written 
documents, were determined by Jeitteles himself as Canis matris optime. As 
a characteristic of these skulls, we may take the ratio of width to height of the 





* Rosellini, I., Monumenti dell’ Egitto, etc., Mon. Civile, plate xvi. 


354 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


occipital triangle, which varies here between 1:0.74 to 1 0.78. In Cants mairas 
optime this ratio, according to Studer, is generally 1:0.74 to 1:0.81 and in the 
wolf 1 :0.91. That Canis matris optime occurred also in ancient Greece is shown 
by a skull in Jeitteles’s collection, which is said to have come from a find in Greece 
(see table). 

We have thus seen that the Assyro-Babylonian culture in all probability 
did not possess the dog of the metal period of the North Kurgan of Anau and 
therefore probably had no relation with the Anau people; but that, on the other 
hand, this dog is found in ancient Egypt—provided Jeitteles’s original determina- 
tions are correct—and that we have here no such parallelism of forms as exists 
in the opinion of Studer already mentioned. It is, therefore, not improbable 
that the primitive Egyptians, who, in the opinion of most Egyptologists as well 
as myself (cf. Die Rinder von Babylonien, Assyrien und Aegypten, p. 73, Berlin, 
1899), migrated from Central Asia via the Red Sea to Egypt, brought with them 
this dog as well as the long-horned cattle which originated in Central Asia. 
This is an attractive conjecture which follows logically upon what has been said. 
"The appearance of Canis matris optime in Greece is not astonishing, but forms 
the connection of the Anau dog with Central European finds, which are especially 
abundant in Austria. Migrations of peoples and commercial intercourse had, 
therefore, at a remote time brought this dog from inner Asia into the heart of 
Europe. 

Ordo RODENTIA. 


MURIDA. 


Arvicola sp. 


Asa recent interloper we have the lower jaw with all the teeth of a mouse. 








Oy 


UN INC 


CHAPTER XVIII. 


Ordo ARTIODACTYLA. 
SUINA. 


Sus palustris Riitimeyer. (Plate 72, figs. 3-8, and plate 80.) 

The remains of the pig are very common in the Anau kurgan. ‘There are 
about 120 pieces, the greater part being remains of skulls. The hard frontal 
bones have shown themselves especially resistant. We have, therefore, parts 
of the frontalia of at least seven individuals, some older and some younger. In one 
of these pieces the bregma has a thickness of 2.5 cm., forming a real armor-plate 
over the brain, while this measurement in other individuals amounted only to 1.1 
to 1.5 cm. This animal was probably a very old boar. Only one brain-skull 
has all the bones complete. Even then the skull was split in the middle along 
the suture so that a restoration was necessary. The skull is decidedly that of a 
small adult pig, whose front shows a slight convexity, which we usually find in 
the Indian Sus cristatus or S. vittatus Miller & Schlegel. We shall consider with 
Nehring (Katalog, 1886, p. 54) Sus cristatus as the continental variety of Sus 
vittatus and employ for the south Asiatic pig the general name of S. vittatus. In 
comparing with the parts of this skull the frontal, parietal, or occipital pieces of 
the other individuals mentioned, one recognizes that the other individuals can 
have been no larger than this. The relations of the skull to those of different 
other small Suide, as well as to two other small skulls from Anau, are shown 
clearly in the table on the following page. 

This table shows that the skulls from Anau stand nearest to those of a wild 
Sus vittatus from Sumatra or to a tame Battak pig, not only in form but also in 
dimensions, and that they possess the greatest similarity to the skulls of the 
Torjschwein (turbary pig) of Schlossberg and Ia Tene, as appears from their 
general form. I think, therefore, that I shall not go amiss if I pronounce these 
skulls to be the oldest known remains of the Torjschwein or turbary pig. 

According to the researches of Riitimeyer,* Rollestone,f Otto,{ and others, 
Sus palustris, the turbary pig, which first appears in the Swiss pile-dwellings 
during the later neolithic period, is derived from Sus vittatus, which would agree 
very well with our finding. 

Nehring,$ on the other hand, considers Sus palustris to have been autoch- 
thonous also in Germany and merely a starveling form (Kwmmerform) of Sus 
scrofa domesticus. Which one of the opinions is correct can be determined with 





* Riitimeyer, Einige weitere Beitraege, etc., Verhandlungen, Basel, 1876. 

+ Rollestone, On the Domestic Pig of Prehistoric Time in Britain, Trans. Linn. Soc., ser. 2, vol. 1. 
tOtto, F., Osteolog. Studien z. Geschichte d. Torfschweines, Revue Suisse de Zoologie, 1901. 
§Nehring, Ueber das sog. Torfschwein (Sus palustris). Verhandl. Berl. anthrop. Gesell., pp. 181-187. 


309 





356 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 





ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 































































































* After Riitimeyer. 


1 A ee 
North Kurgan, Sus vittatus. | Sus scrofa, Tunis Soha $s 8 
Anau. (Mus. Bern). (wild boar). (Mus. Bern). “ g gig 
oR BSS 
Skull. ied Aa|3 20 
Wild, | of the | Mus, | Coll, |Schloss| La (Bete eae 
| +6 ft.| —8 ft.+20 a re Bat- | Bern. | Duerst.| berg. | Téne. |'§ "9/2 9 5 
f taks. | | 8a) So 
a” |Y) 
Length from middle of occi- | 
pital ridge to line of junc- 
tion between anterior bor- 
ders: of ‘orbitsie ene eee | 116 125 120 118 113 127 99 116 
Length from same point to | 
coronal sutures ase oe ok 54 55 55 53 46 56 36 38 35 40 
Greatest width of frontal | | | 
Done ke < Cee eee tn 82 96 IOI 86 92 85 102 84 86 81 102 
Length of frontal bone to | 
line of junction between | 
anterior borders of orbits..) 61 7 75 67 is) 57 64 
Height of fossa temporalis | 32 vee | 38 37 32 42 er ‘ 25 39 
Greatest occipital height...) 92 | 98 99 eee 106 ake Ses: 60 102 
Least occipital height...... | 62(?)} | sf te one 82 60 65-sales5 79 
Greatest occipital width....)| 88 - -. Af ee) go 90 88 110 
Least parietal width........| 32 | | 33 34 26 17 24 24 23 29 
Greatest parietal width..... | 72 | Te bis ey 78 72 69 | 68 81 
Width between anterior bor- | 
Gers ‘Of orbits sean eee ere aoe 58| 66| 54 58 53 74 60 74 
Length from anterior to | 
posterior border of orbit. ; 3I 34 33 35 38 32 36 30 a0 
Anau. A 
Vl: nau anlohsee | Vindo- os 
Lower jaw. | +12 to| +24| +19 | +26 Tae | Spain of pile- 
_ 1903. Adult, Adult, Adult|“ | , ee 
Length of symphysis........ | 62 62 59 123-144 
Width of corpus between 
exterior borders of alveoles | | 
Of TUSKS\ titi wa aioe a eee | 45 J wees | wees 45 42 
Width between inner borders | | 
Of ‘Saintes. on cet ere ee | 28 see | 31 30 
Transverse diameter before 
premolar 24 ie cme ere | 3 HSA, ocOilves seaee 91) eens ets 34 ac 
Height of horizontal branch | 
before premolan3... 00. es 7 Aopen saree 37 38 
Height of horizontal branch | | | | 
behind molatiaa.ce eee 51 A SO aed 7) | 47 47 60 
Length of molar 3:7. 1.0 sees) Re re aie ee ie ac 26 30-31 43-46 
Width of ascending branch, | 78 65. |. 70. | 69 jo leo ehh 
| | 





absolute certainty only by comparative experiments with living individuals of 


both of the respectively postulated ancestors. 


In the meantime we shall follow 


the recognized hypothesis of the majority of the authors, namely, that Sus 
palustris is derived from Sus vittatus, especially since this conception agrees with 
the requirements of our special case, and because, contrary to the requirements 
of Nehring’s hypothesis, no remains of the large pig (presumably Sus scrofa ferus) 


are found in the lower strata. 


Notwithstanding the fact that the contemporary 


climatic conditions were favorable to the breeding of swine, they appear only 


ORDO ARTIODACTYLA. Ley 


at a later period. If, therefore, a degeneration and stunting of the wild Sus 
scrofa had occurred through a domesticated condition, we should have found 
transitional forms as well as among sheep and cattle. 

The occurrence of Sus palustris among the remains of Anau is therefore 
no surprise, since it was logically easy to conclude, as had already been declared 
by C. Keller,* that the animal must exist in subfossil condition in Central Asia, 
since it came at so early a period from Asia into Europe. It is, however, important 
that the turbary pig does not seem to have been domesticated in Anau itself. 

In spite of what has been said, however, there remains the possibility that 
the turbary breed of pigs, if not domesticated at Anau, may have been formed 
on some other oasis of Turkestan, since it occurs at such an early period (at —8 
feet) at Anau. If we do not carry this hypothesis further, it is because in the 
first place we find no bones of swine in the lowest layers of the wild animal period, 
and secondly because an importation of the tame turbary pig from Iran or India 
remains among the possibilities. It is, however, certain that the turbary pig 
reached Central Europe with the builders of the pile-dwellings and contemporan- 
eously with the turbary sheep that originated at Anau, since it occurs in the earliest 
pile-dwellings; and in this animal also we see proof of the influence that was exerted 
by the culture of Turkestan on that of Europe. 

It is interesting also to compare the lower jaw with that of the European 
turbary pig (see table on p. 356). Studer, who explained the form of the turbary 
pig’s skull as signifying a wild condition, owing to a freer life, thinks that the 
weakening of the lower jaw, which appears in the later bronze age in Switzerland, 
was due to a change in the manner of life to which the animals were subjected. 

Our comparison, however, shows that the turbary pig of the Anau kurgan, 
down to that of the Germans of the Schlossberg and the Romans of Vindonissa, 
underwent no weakening process. 

The measurements of the best of the extremity bones given in the following 
table need little further explanation. While the dimensions of the scapula, tibia, 
and ulna agree closely with those of the domestic pigs of the Sus indicus series, 
as for instance the China, Maori, and Siam pigs, the measurements of humerus, 
radius, and metatarsus correspond very well with those of the Eurasiatic Sus 
scrofa Linneus or the wild Sus vittatus of southern Asia. The actual presence 
of the Sus scrofa, the Eurasiatic boar,in Turkestan is known; the larger bones 
of a wild boar appear only in the higher layers of the North Kurgan. It may 
also be possible that the Eurasiatic wild boar (Sus scrofa) reached Anau only 
after the south Asiatic wild boar (Sus vittatus) had disappeared. The exact 
relations, can not be determined in the absence of fuller data. The best conception 
would probably be that the neolithic or neolithic Anau-li for a while killed and 
ate wild pigs. Nevertheless, the wild pig seems to have been very rare. Whether 
the region was too dry and the forests of the Kopet Dagh offered too little space, 
or whether the Anau-li found the chase of this animal too difficult, can not be 
stated, but it is certain that we find the bones of the wild pig only in later strata 
and very scarce among the enormous quantity of other bones. 





*C, Keller, Die Abstammung der aeltesten Haustiere, 18, 102. 


358 ANIMAL, REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 


(The measurements are taken in comparison with those published by Padelt [Padelt, M., Skelettmessungen am 
Schwein; Inaug. Diss., Leipzig, 1892] of specimens from China, Siam, Germany, England, and the Maori pig.) 















































= | : | 15 jx |e |S 
St (ale) eee eee 
ue) al Pe | Bein Ui oe 0138 a) re | 
—E | | So) oe ot el cio. |S wre 
— Pe el ok eee She |e clade 
| ae es on a= Sy 37 |° IRBs oro | 
S)8l8\4)8)6) 3/5 /selEsealeg 
bl kis | S| o/ 8] e] SS le slasiksis 5 
Bl BO oe ere dh Shh ge ile OR oon Be 
. Hie SSl/AlLH | a/ALAIA |jO |m& JA 
| | aa - | 
SCAPULA: (30 1071, a Oe eS, cm ee ee ed | 68 
North Kurgan, Anau ~+26ft.|..|..175|28|..|.. | op 2 
135. 10., 380) os hg ARB ies oh ee ie BOS Nee 
China, temalertae seni ccm aes ee P34 NOS 5 tee ger en eae ile Wee ll Meet 5 
Maori pig; male, .o5..c i aces oe 87 ITTF OG le37 1 tel) reer ste aaa fae Wg 
Siam male snes cet eo eee S85 1X08) BS") SG. ls. ee eos Pe te eee? 
Germany, female.........#..... G2 ltog tz i agit, Pee a op eee 
England, femalevnwica an see eee IOS lta3 6. wae) eGR ehh ee e AeeeO 
Wild’ pig, maletta.e.. .cicx a'cuaaeen [260 |143 |124 | 44 | | / / 86 
HUMERUS: (20 Mod) ao A nO eC sone eo ' 
North Kurgan, Anad =< 4-28 10.) Vanja 9), WV a7 ee comin eee | 
((?) ie eae ee ee 32 
China, temaleoa. Asantne sarees 25 | SS lek es ble eee ee ee 
Maori pig. miales eee eet are 163,50 1 oo a ote ser ewe ena 
Siam, maleot..0- eee chee ator n63 b-@ 43%). Gai tae Ol ok eS 
Germany, temaleg:.... cscs ies 12760.) 47 49 [48 1) 2. ee 
England, femalew. 062... vers 257 49S | 35 04a <a 1 os gee Oe 
Wild pig alae soe eee eee Tee ee mee ee eM el ee | 43 
RADIUS: | | | | 
North Kurgan, Anau, +16 ft....| .. | 38 | 2 aad ace tenn Np ty: 
China, female: 349%... eee. 92} ar Pea Peete ae | 
Maor pig, male.ney a... sen eee ee It45 | 30 | 21 2:4 / 
Dla, Mal Ge, eee ees T4011) 30ers A ee oe 
Germany, females: 2 ac: sash \162:}.98 ) @8. |) aa 2a) Sno diees 
England, female............: ANS ded een ee Me et 
ane. (\192 | 36 | 24 | 39 
Wild. pity <4:ane nae aeen aces ~|184 | 38 | 21 | 39 
192 | 36 | 24 | 38 | 
ULNA: | ‘ 
North Kurgan, Anau, +16 ft....| .. | .. | 12 | .. | 20 | 22 | 12 | .. | 52 
Chinas ost. Sek ee), pee eee ere NP. 0.0 ob ee Pa Oa Sales 
Maori Pig... 00s cep enevin sees IOS y Pec irOdp as ele Lye e an ee aterm Got 
DIAN WG .a ewe ee aes Meee a) LOI, Fe WCE Ve, | oO Beet he ane oe 
Germany: ...02 o> tach pens ae oe) ieee et | RS 1 2G)-9 |} ascah SO 
Mngland c's) ca sap ent waar. 25S anaiea ral ST ATae2s 102 
Wald pigs see ee eee ee 266 | .. | 18 | 18 1 26.) 18 
TIBIA: | 
North Kurgan, Anau, +23 ft...:/154 1/37 | a7 | 2514. 1.. 1 24 1.. 14. | «2 (900 62 
China face tee eae ee eee 122) 38 25.) Gr) Saal a eat te, ale eee Somme 
Maori pig V0 8 orc, dan aor ae ee 183 24°22.) AI 4 Rela eee 82 wel) a ae | Oo 
Slain: :). «cay eee eee 167 4 49 } 394 27-1) cee 5 bo eee OA 
German yin: «cae ome ee 202 | 49 |20 16261) =. 29 : .. {100 | 59 
Bagland 1h. cps vu donee eae meee 248) 9h ae de Nae | 38 150 | 97 
Wald ‘pig nen. areal ere nine 236) '56. 10a" | 38 | | 35 99 | 73 
FOURTH METATARSUS: 
North Kurgan, Anau, +23 ft.:.-] 85/45 }474) .. 1) costae ie 
Ching «One ti: i ee ane eee AS \, oc. a| Se ale sae edemal eae 8 
Maoti Pigic - sukicas es00 hates ye Mel eek || see 14 
STAT 2. add see a ee tee OS cca CA eek in eee a oT 
Germanys <5 Pocn nee eis eee: coh OME Reta tesets ll GS eae n ts) aoe 
Erigiand .2picgr sie. hits een oe 85 22 07 
Wild: pig sacra erg ence eee ee 99 17 15 






































CAVICORNIA. 359 


CAVICORNIA. 


BOVINA. 


(Plates 73 and 74; plate 78, figs. 1-4, and 7; plate 81, fig. 1; plate 83, fig. 1; 
plate 85; text-fig. 490.) 


Bos namadicus Faiconer & Cautley (Bos macroceros Duerst) or the Asiatic form of the urus (Bos primi- 
genius Bojanus). 


The remains of this bovid are also not very complete, but next to those of 
the sheep and the fox they are certainly the best of the bone fragments. They 
at least answer the requirements for the exact determination of the species present 
and are sufficient for the reconstruction of the skeletons. Among the 68 fragments 
of parts of the skull, trunk and extremity bones, the most remarkable pieces are 
two proximal ends of the radius with the corresponding olecranon of the ulna, 
Nos. 13 to 18. Both bones show old fractures, about 10 cm. below the articula- 
tions, and the ulna, No. 13, has distinct traces of gnawing, probably by human teeth. 
The dimensions of these bone fragments compared with the homogeneous bones 
of other animals are given (in millimeters) in the following table of dimensions: 





















































Radius. Ulna. 
| —_—_—— - ee —— ee = es ee ss 
| Width Oi .: : Least | : 
ef cher ee Width (Diam- | Length | width | Height 
: : LeeLeL Of) : | of sig- 
| Proxi- | proxi- | ig. id- | of ole- of ole- | id 
mal mal | de | "ha ~ | cranon,| cra- “pales 
end end | a “ eC | non ossa, 
= = ( —24 feet... .| ror | 48 51 33 | ee aa 
North Kurgan, Anau {.—20 feet... .| 96 49 33 | 140? 64 As 
(after David*..... 99 | eh Bec ' 146 a7 50 
Et Prmmigentis attics Bntmneyer< 9) £03 Foose fio tee Le 152 84 53 
Egyptian Apis, a RLS erotica Oy SO e300 ras 20 
Bubalus arnee, No. 6707, Paris Mus.. .| 78 28 40 22 cst 
Equus caballus (Clydesdale)... .....| 2 se aetaee |) yes 130 
Metacarpus. 
Width of Diameter of W idth oe tinetes of 
distal end, distal end. middle. | middle. 
North Kurgan, Anau, — 20 feet...... | 70 36 37 We 
Bos primigenius, after T’scherski..... | 76.5 a 51 35 
Egyptian Apis, Paris Mus........... J 70 37 38 | 27 
Bubalus arnee, No. 6707, Paris Mus.. 67 34 a6 | 23 
Bos taurus, Paris Mus. . So oto OPI 68 42 46 32 
Bubalus bainii, Ambolisatra......... 2 | 45 62 | 36 
5 4 

















* David, A., Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Abstammung des Hausrinds. Landw. Jahrbuch der Schweiz, Bern, 1897, p. 134. 


It is easy to observe that the dimensions of the subfossil bones from Anau 
greatly exceed those of the corresponding bones of one of the greatest modern 
horses and closely approach the bones of Bos primigenius of the ancient Kuropean 
culture-strata. It is not probable, considering the remains we find in the later 
periods of the kurgan, that the first inhabitants of Anau hunted a gigantic wild 
horse or had a horse of the size of a Clydesdale or a Percheron; and there can be 
no doubt that the bones mentioned belonged to a large bovine animal. Another 
extremity bone, a metacarpus medius, No. 121, confirms this conclusion. Marked 


360 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


by its special form as a bovine metacarpus, its dimensions are nearly the same 
as those of the Apis bull of the ancient Egyptian tombs of Sakkara, of which there 
is a skeleton in the Paris Museum, and are even greater than those of the recent 
Indian wild bulls. 

It is, therefore, evident that the bone did not belong to a horse, but to a bovine 
animal, although it might be still doubtful whether it was of the ‘bubaline’’ 
or the “taurine’’ form. 

Anotker confirmation of the correctness of this view is found in the determina- 
tion of the bones collected by Professor Pumpelly from the Komorof trench in 
the North Kurgan,* during his previous visit to Anau in 1903. These were sent 
to Professor Zittel, in Munich, for determination; and among them Zittel deter- 
mined a small and well-preserved bone as a right scaphoid of Equus caballus 
domesticus Linneus. Mr. F. A. Iaicas, an American zoologist, better versed in 
recent comparative osteology than was the great German paleontologist, writes 
on the bone another and more exact determination: ‘‘Not Equus but Bos, from 
a large animal. We have no skeleton of water buffalo (Bos bubalus), but it is 
probably this.’’ It follows that we must first decide to which bovine form this 
animal belongs, whether to a bubalus or a taurus species. To do this we must 
first solve the question as to whether the bovid of the Anau kurgan was a wild 
or a tame animal. 

More prudence is now shown than formerly in the application of the charac- 
teristics given by L. Rtitimeyer in recognizing whether bones belong to a wild 
or a tame animal. 

I judge the Anau bovid in question to have been wild for the following reasons: 
(1) because it was much larger than all the other domestic bovine animals, which 
were found in great quantities in the higher layers of the Anau North Kurgan; 
(2) because the structure of the bones is much heavier and harder than that of 
bovine animals in domestication, whose bones are spongy and lighter; (3) because 
the other species in the same layers belong undoubtedly to wild animals, and 
because this large bovid seems to be wholly wanting in the higher layers of the 
kurgan. ‘These are my reasons, and I observe that in several recent publications 
on subfossil bones the authors have been contented with only one of these reasons 
in attributing bones to a wild or tame form of animal. 

Assuming that this bovid was wild, we will inquire what wild bovids were 
living in Turkestan or Northern Persia in prehistoric times. ‘The first indications 
are those furnished by the ancient Babylonians. 

In earlier publications I have established the fact that two wild bovine 
animals lived in Babylonia, and that the language and writing of the Sumero- 
Accadians, who are supposed to have immigrated from Iran or Northern Persia, 
before these people united with the Semitic race, have only one word for wild 
bull. The ideogram of bull was a two-horned bull’s head, written V= gud, in 








*Explorations in Turkestan, Expedition of 1903, Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 
No. 26, p. 8. Washington, 1905. 

+ Duerst, Die Rinder von Babylonien, Assyrien und Aegypten, Berlin, 1899; Notes sur quelques bovides 
préhistoriques, l’Anthropologie, 1900, pp. 129-158. 


INE 7/8). 





Fic. 1. Right"branch of lower jaw of Bos brachyceros of Fic. 4. Metatarsus medius of small breed of II or metallic 
medium size from a turbary of Tschontschitz period. 
(Bohemia) Museum ‘Teplitz. 5-7. Phalanx I, II, and III, of larger breed of Ia period. 
2. Same bone (restored), Bos namadicus. 8-9, Phalanx I and II, smaller breed of II period. 


3. Metacarpus medius of large ox, breed of Id period. 10-11. Phalanges of camel, 





PLATE 74. 


y GUGGSs . 


z= Poephagus grunniens and bison 


Ti) GRBs 


Bos namadicus 


Bos primigenius 





Bubalus and bison 





Taurus 
Bubalus occipitalis 


Fics. 1-3. Basioccipital bone in 1, Ovibos; 2, Bubalus; 3, Taurus. 
4-10. Accessory columns in teeth of 4, Yak and Bison; 5, Bos namadicus, India; 6, Bos primigentus; 7, Bos 
namadicus (Anau); 8, Bos tawrus macroceros (Nepal); 9, Bos frontalis; 10, Bubalus occipitalis. 





CAVICORNIA. 361 





Semitic = alpu; a wild bull was written YW =am, Semitic=rimu,in Hebrew = reem. 
The difference between tame and wild bull is, therefore, in the ideogram, only 
the sign for mountain = **. A wild bull was in the ancient Sumero-Accadian 
language “a bull of the mountains.” 

Several ancient Babylonian sculptures or cylinder seals and many later 
Assyrian sculptures show very realistic pictures of a wild bovine, which I formerly 
identified with Bos primigenius Bojanus (plate 83, fig. 1). 

My recent studies on fossil remains of the bovines of the Indian Pleistocene 
have shown me that the Indian (Narbada and Siwaliks) and China faurina are 
the exact equivalent of the European urus (Bos primigenius Bojanus), excepting 
some very slight variations produced by different geographical and local influences: 
so that the Bos namadicus Falconer & Cautley would represent the European 
urus for the Asiatic continent, especially the North Indian mountains and their 
neighborhood (compare fig. 490 with plate 81). 





Fig. 490.—Bos namadicus, after Lydekker. Indian Geological Survey. 


The buffalo, the other wild bull hunted by the ancient inhabitants of Persia, 
Babylonia, and Assyria, is Bubalus paleindicus Falconer, or the recent form 
descending from that Pleistocene species, Bubalus arnee Kerr. It is already 
represented on the cylinder seals of the kings of Shipurla and of Ur. ‘The best 
representation can be found on the cylinder seal of Sargon, King of Accad, who 
reigned B. C. 3800 to 3750. ‘This seal in the collection of M. de Clercq, of Paris, 
bears the following inscription, “Sar-ga-ni-sar-luh sar Agaddeki Ib-ni-sar tup-sar 
aradsu’’ (“from Sargon, King of Accad, Ibnishar the scribe, his servant).’’* 








* See Clercq et Ménant, Antiquités Assyriennes, p. 79, fig. 46. Paris, 1888. 


362 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


We know further that great numbers of these large animals were killed by 
the Assyrian king Ashur-nasir-pal, on the hunting grounds near the Euphrates. 
Aristotle mentions the occurrence of the buffalo with horns curved back to the 
neck, in Arachosia, the Persian province Khokand; and Chosroes II (591 to 628 
A. D.) is represented on a silver plate in the National Library of Paris as hunting 
this animal.* 

There can be no doubt that two large bovine animals lived in very ancient 
times in Northern Persia in proximity to the Anau kurgans. Which of these 
two animals furnished the bones we are discussing and was the one hunted by the 
ancient Anau-li? Fortunately there are among the bones from the deepest layers 
of the kurgan several which enable us to answer this question. These are fragments 
of a right branch of a lower jaw, which I have restored, a basioccipital bone, and 
a fragment of a horn-core. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 








| North Kurgan, Bos namadicus Bos primige- Bubalus 
Lower jaw. Anau, Narbada nius arnee 
— 20 ft. | (Brit. Mus.). (Mus. Bern). (Paris). 
a ee ee ek fe HOES OE a 28 a = | 
} Lemptiiny: ceca siete a sieteue es Pico ot snatcka cee eee 438 443 ates 455 
| Lengtiwot Gemtitign... $0 secur pe nee ee 162 171 161 125 
Lengthiot,molarsy2acer ...ren eee nes 108 110 . 104 
Length ofprentolarss a... .00 7 > sere ee 76 80 56 henets 
| Length ‘of toothless "parties... .ntsnis oer mee 1 ie 115 asiefre 154 
Width of ascending bratich ya. eee 136 142 ae 139 
| Height of horizontal branch at premolar1..... 53 | 5I 45 5I 
Width of:ineisivespartcca. = ae cee ee 78 83 | 84 102 





North Kurgan, | Bos primi- 
i] 

















Basioccipital bone. Anau, genius, Kirken-| Bos taurus, 
—17 ft. dorightshire Walthamstow. 
(Mus. London), 
| B4e: as - “ Ge ee sats = i a 
Length of cond jie!| 2: i wea a ee ee 110 130 105 
| Width of foramen. = ceccc enn Ose ons ae re eee | 43 43 
Width aboveicondyies o. ...> aeons See ae ees een | 56 65 Teg 
Width, on upper, protuberances)... ee eens 60 2 57 
Width on tuberctla pharynves ...c.c ah var. eee ee 37 eae 26 
Length from upper protuberances to tubercula pharyngee... . 44 46 oe 
Lateral lenoth of basioceipital eat. ce seen eee 2 94 76 
7 | Circumf aie = Verti 1 7 
r ienc . > erence 
Provenience of horn-core. Soy wp Pi brcibgeae | Length of core. 
Anat. oo.0 ne ce ga Sie es ican eit are cae ee ore | about 400 120 | aes 
Suen-Hua-Fu, China, Bos namadicus (Mus. Paris)...... oa 413 122 about 830 
Ilford, Essex, England, Brit. Mus. (N. 25426) Bos primigenius.. 430 124 1000 
Algeri: a, Bos opistonomus Pomel (Mus. Algeria)............ 340 90 800 
Levallois- Perret (Paris), Bos primigenius (Mus. Paris)...... 415 110 725 
Rhine, Bosprimigentus (Mus. Darmstadt)......../3........ ) 382 100 690 








It is well known that one of the principal differences between the bubaline 
and the taurine form of the ox tribe consists in the slender form of the lower jaw 
and especially in the greater width of the incisive part (corpus) of the lower jaw 
in the buffalo, and the greater narrowness of the horizontal branch behind the 





* Duerst, Suciaaes, ruminants sur des ceuvres d’: art Ceaaiiates, Revue archéolog., I, pp. 239-244. 


CAVICORNIA. 363 


incisive part. These qualities are easily recognizable in the table of dimensions 
above. It is clear enough that the present lower jaw belongs, not to a buffalo, 
but to a large taurine animal like the European urus. 

The well-preserved basioccipital bone shows equally well a marked difference 
between buffalo and taurus (see plate 74, figs. 2-3). In the buffalo it approaches 
more the type of Ovzs, is rather short, and the tubercula pharyngee predominate 
vis-a-vis the upper protuberances. In regard to size, the basioccipital of Anau 
corresponds very exactly with that of the skulls of Bos primigentus of the British 
Museum. 

Lastly, the fragment of a horn-core (plate 78, fig. 2) denotes a round-horned 
animal and not a bovid with flat horns of quadrangular or triangular cross-section. 
This fragment represents the basal part of a left horn-core with some frontal 
pieces attached. Its surface is granulous, therefore it seems to have belonged to 
an adult individual. The core is at the base filled with some spongy bone sub- 
stance, which gives the impression that it must have belonged to a gigantic indi- 
vidual with enormous horns, like those found by Abbé David in the Chinese loess 
near Suen-hua-fu. This is corroborated by the measurements compared with 
those of several other horn-cores of Bos namadicus and Bos primigenius, which 
are remarkable for their size. 

It is, therefore, proved beyond doubt that a large taurine animal furnished 
the bones in question, and in the light of our researches concerning the wild bovine 
animals of these regions, it must certainly have been the Bos namadicus Falconer 
& Cautley, 7. e., the Asiatic urus. 

Of the bovine group, there remain to be considered only the Taurina proper 
and the Protaurina, as well as the bison and yak. “Here, too, the teeth offer an 
easy means of discrimination. According to Rtitimeyer* (1): “Bison and yak 
have become so sharply characterized that their teeth can be distinguished from 
those of Taurus, Bubalus, and of the Bibovina (Protaurus mihi) through the 
weakest development of the accessory columns.”’ 

This difference is more clearly shown on plate 74. It will be seen from fig. 4 
that in this specimen of Pephagus grunniens from Nepal, male, about 6 years 
of age, the construction of the teeth is very simple. It is No. 611a; 5ab 28, 
No. 152, British Museum. 

On the other hand, fig. 5, Bos namadicus (specimen 36672), called by Riitimeyer 
Bos paleogaurus (Paleontological Gallery, British Museum); fig. 6, Bos primi- 
genius Bojanus, Pleistocene, Grays (Essex) (No. 21296, 21647, Paleont. Gal., 
British Museum); fig. 7, a molar series from Anau; fig. 8, Bos taurus macroceros, 
long-horned cattle brought from Nepal by Hodgson, 1848 (?) (British Museum) 
(skull, plate 82, fig. 1); fig. 9, Bos frontalis Evans, from Assam (British Museum) ; 
fig. 10, Bubalus occipitalis Falconer (Probubalus triquetricornis Rtitimeyer, No. 
16173, Paleont. Gal., British Museum) show more and different plications of the 
enamel-folds. 





* Versuch einer Natiirlichen Geschichte des Rindes, 1 Abteilung, p. 91. 


364 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


Since all these molar series belong to individuals of about the same age, the 
variation can not be due to difference in age.- The sex is also the same, at least 
in the recent specimens, although it is not certain whether fig. 8 is a male or a 
castrated male. ‘This, however, should not produce a perceptible influence upon 
the dental markings. 

Here, too, after an exact comparison, our Anau ox ranges itself between 
Bos namadicus and Bos primigenius; while the enamel plications are still more 
manifold than in Bos taurus macroceros of Nepal, which, in comparison with the 
early Egyptian long-horned cattle, has very numerous plications. 

Bos taurus macroceros Duerst. (Plate 79, fig. 2; plate 81, fig. 2; plate 82, fig. 1; plate 83, fig. 3; map, 
plate 85.) 

In the layers of the North Kurgan of Anau, beginning at —15 feet below 
the level of the plain and extending to the top of the hill, we find numerous 
bones of domestic cattle. These bones are found far more frequently than those 
of the other animals and are easily distinguishable by their lightness and highly 
porous character. In addition, the color of these bones is a light yellowish-brown, 
while that of the bones of the wild bull is a darker brown. 

To determine the origin of the domestic cattle, we must try, first, to recognize 
the breed and size; second, to see whether there is any connection between them 
and the wild cattle of the strata below —15 feet; and third, to determine the 
probable distribution of these animals over the neighboring parts of Asia. 


‘THE BREED AND SIZE OF THE DOMESTIC CATTLE OF ANAU. 


In various earlier publications, I have several times expressed the opinion 
that the short-horned cattle of the turbary man of Europe (Bos brachyceros 
Rtitimeyer), which seemed to have been imported from Asia, were the oldest 
cattle of the world, although descended from a long-horned wild species, the 
Bos namadicus. It seems, however, that the bones of Anau tend to contradict 
this opinion. ‘The bones of the cattle in the layers from —15 feet to +25 feet 
show no concordance with those of Bos brachyceros. They are all distinctly 
larger in size and the few remains of horn-cores indicate a long-horned animal. 

We will now first compare the dimensions of these bones with those of other 
prehistoric cattle, especially with those of the mummified skeletons of a sacred 
bull, Apis, of the old Egyptian tombs of Sakkarah, now in the Museum of Natu- 
ral History at Paris, and with those of Bos taurus brachyceros Rtitimeyer, from 
the excavations of Schlossberg, near Burg (Brandenburg), and several localities 
of Bohemia. 

But we shall see that it is not possible that these marked differences were 
only those of sex or individuality. I begin with the extremity bones. 

Several fragments of scapula were among the bones from the kurgan, but 
only two fragments of distal ends of this bone are sufficiently preserved to serve 
for measurements. ‘The dimensions given in the table on pp. 366-368 show an 
exact concordance in size between the fragments from the +17-foot layer and the 
scapula of the Apis bull; the fragment from the +26-foot layer being smaller. 


CAVICORNIA. 365 


There is also a number of humeri, mostly fragments of the middle part without 
articulation. Only one proximal part and four distal parts are in good condition. 
The measurements indicate the same important rule—that the bones of the lower 
layers are much larger in size than those of the higher layers, and that those 
from +25 feet are approximately of the same size as those of Bos brachyceros. 

The same rule is good for the radius, of which we have only four good pieces. 
We have the distal part, No. 1114, from the —15-foot layer, undoubtedly belonging 
to a younger specimen of the wild Bos namadicus, as is shown by the dimensions 
and the heavier and harder composition of the bones. As is proved by several 
other bones, such as phalanges, the wild animal appears from time to time in the 
layers near the level of the plain, but still decreasing proportionately in number, 
and seeming to disappear with the + 20-foot layer. 

All metacarpal bones were badly injured; only one has been restored and 
this shows a close concordance with the Apis of Paris, while another from the 
+ 20-foot layer approaches in size the Bos brachyceros of the Schlossberg. 

I must here treat another question. It might seem probable that the smaller 
bones of the higher layers are those of younger animals of the same kind as the 
larger. This opinion is certainly true as regards the lower layers, as the smaller 
bones of these strata show very decided marks of youth; but this is not so with 
the smaller bones above +23 feet. All those which are mentioned in the meas- 
urement table are of adult animals. It seems very probable, therefore, that the 
higher layers contained a smaller breed of cattle which was formed there by the 
physiographical influence on the climate and on the production of food during the 
period of aridity at the end of culture period I, or which came into Anau at the same 
time as the camel, the goat, the hornless sheep, and the shepherd-dog. 

But the long-horned larger bovid does not entirely disappear in the metal 
period* of the kurgan; several larger extremity bones show his presence among 
the smaller cattle. Among the phalanges there are in the lower strata several 
which in size correspond wholly to those of Bos primigenius and which are even 
considerably larger than those of the Apis of Paris. 

The measurements of the femora from the North Kurgan, Anau, agree well, 
in the measurable dimensions, with those of Bos brachyceros and are considerably 
smaller than those of the Apis skeleton. The same applies to the tibie. 

The metatarsi show also, in part, dimensions which indicate a somewhat 
more slender-limbed cattle than was the Egyptian long-horned cattle. 

The measurements of the lower jaws of the first period correspond to those 
of the extremities and show the same dimensions as those of the family of the 
recent Bos macroceros, as is easily seen in the agreement of the few lower-jaw 
measurements with those of a mummy skull from Abadieh, and of the Hungarian 
bull of the Hofmuseum of Vienna (plate 81, fig. 2). 





* Culture II.—R. P. 


366 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 

















Width of articula- 





























Saou ¢ .|2¢/5,|4 
sie Me men oes £/ 25/58] < 
2/8/3S|/ 8/5) 2] 88) ga] og 

| S ely AS tects aa E Ae 5 vs Ty 
) —a|[—a|/FElalealS |] Gol e& | FS 
1 ee a cs s B | co rs) oe fe) 
= iS iS a = — — =| BE oo = i Y 
tl\ Rl RIS |S |S) 8) 33/5 
Biel elslBl\eB/ 8B) 22/88] @ 
Sle al al alAlAssS a 
SCAPULA: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
Ey TeCt ee. ee enero : 57 
“+56 feet oes eee te ae ies 55 
Apis bull, Bos taurus macro- 
Ceres { Paris) (cee ee Sif 
Schlossberg, Bos taurus brachy- 
Ceros: (NOs 27)\ act eee 48 
HUMERUS: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
No: 618, -22 feets eae 110 |120 | .. xe eee 
No, 74:77 “7 teets woe ae 94 51 Pa 
No. 1081, +26 feet...... 3 69 46 37 
No, 35, +26 fetta... - : 64 45 30 
No, 1082, 26 fects... ee ee eee ee Be 38 30 
Apis, Paris: = ene ene 350 |112 |117 | 42 | 57 | 87 | 80| 50 38 
Schlossberg, NG™ 77.6. el 240 | G44'S5)| 28 7 375-63) i Ounce tte eee 
RADIUS: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
No, aiitd4, 15 feet ae 60 | 35 | 91 | 58 
NO? 6415 > ot 1eeh ac. tea. SW Ae ol skceel SOe AS 
No, 772,%4-2'5 feetwe sone 88 | 39 Bi 
NO). 808,25 CCC ea ee 89 | 39 
Apis, Bos taurus macroceros 
(Paris): eh vere cere: 4 332 | 89 | 30 | 48 | 20 | 82 | 47 
Schlossberg, Bos taurus brachy- 
ceros (No: 188)esee eee 174 54 We 33a BO ee Tes Om eo 
METACARPUS: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
N0O26835 4 7ateec, ater P25 TIGA S Head Vesa aS 
No: 781; +26 feet... ee Sc ll Ged tml tote Male aes? NS 
No. 31, Komorof's trench] 73.fieax 1 Sei hosaehe aa eat a4 
N0O.272; 4-26 feets...e. TT A OM eo Me 2 2 eee eer 
No; 257,)+-28 fects... Pay el eae cael Gree Sin peo 
Apis, Parts on oh as ees 234 1 62 f 43 1 384 37 | 90] a9 
Schlossberg) = o.5..25.6. eee 190 | 534] 42) 25:) Fo)" 5041 30 
FEMUR: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
No,.1044, -b 28 feetar. 14: TINO 
NONS521; -- 32 feet eee 80 100 
‘25 eet oes ge ot eee eee 83 |112 
Apis, Paris, Bos taurus brachy- 
CFOS: araeict. Tae Eee eee ‘104 134 
TIBIA: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
No. 899, +35 f6€ts. = aenical sos) ee ene ae ek 
“f= 32 feet. ee eee ee eee 307 175 7S ego SEO Sass 
Bos taurus brachyceros: 
Schaffis (after David), ...) .. 7 a5 9 <0) cee ee Oe eae 
Anis, Paris /o.... een 403 1107 | 90%) 47 |-54 1 7O "51 






































tion. 


7O 
50 








Diameter of articu- 
lation. 











SS 


Table of dimensions (vn millimeters).—Continued. 


CAVICORNIA. 











367 



























































ist 
vu . 
| ¢ |. o © = 
| + : 44 Vv . ; rir 
Ca 2 = = is Oo = g is 
ae ce cd ee a ee E: 5 - 
cea SL Sy Sy Els Sets pens 
Pile ih a Sea ee oh ET 3 
SH | ow | oR Sos e SS ~ ie} = 5 
i) kota cra eRe Re a > 
er ey) ha a ee be = 6) H 
METATARSUS: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
INOwO5O;0-1 al COUR atts sid crc eae ae eee OF 3o 
INGe Ore COMeCl tne sue clans COn eA te souls Dalene het. 
INOS OS 20; TCC laters wtemuneracts Meee meres) eta Wess I 2) 1 30 
IN|), MeUNep, SoC PIN SAGs Bion Gan ee oor Seer cellieatcr hare bos cole BO! Te SS 
_ No. 1579, +24 feet...........- 221 At | 40 1 2351825)" 50 4) 28 
IMS, Veh Cis 6 aig noo dn Gk ee oie tion oe bE RB.b 50 1 321 32.1 65. 37 
PHALANX I: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
IN} Ti aR Ss aa sie erod sare 7) 44.1-41 ) ou 28 | 34°) 26 Fea 
No 22, Komorof:sitrench’-.. -. 2. POz as seeee.4 261-43.) 23 
Noja4G, Far feet sa ae ens ms 64 | 26 | 31 | 22 | 23 Eo 20 
pteED EL CO Li sceen eevore sat dx ek eet shsl = ies", COMe2T RE STE 23a 2) Ve sAnia1LG 
oe joa - Pe a en 55 ' = aa ce ta eee 20 | 
TOT 2 Souced «Ati oe OeOartns Ce ee 34 | 22 | 2 2S; i 12 
| NiomA S138 1226 TeGt yah ene onetern ey 60 | 26 | 30 | 22 | 22 | 27 | 20 
INiOnE 7020-120 TEEl as yin se citer = 60 | 29 | 35 | 25 | 24 | 27 | 20 
No. Belch Sets hts cee cud dma ae Gi 26 | 354025 fy!) 28) 28 
aw Be 903, + 32 feet.......--+--- 63 30 | 33 | 26 25 28 | 22 » ti 
PIS, Faris... 2. ee eee ee eet eee Bos Si 36. 130.) 20. 8les 5,4) 2 
Bos primigenius Bojanus: 
| Unter-Grumbach, after Schoe- | Edeae ‘ 5 
| Pensack yn Gaerne bi aie A z : 
79 |395 37 | 39 
Robenhausen, after Riitimeyer 1| te - | ee Re 
/ | 
| Bos brachyceros: 
| Schlossberg, No. 234.:...-.-.+-> | 58 | 30 | 33 | 23 | 22°1 38 | 20 
Gross Czernosek, La Tene (Mus. ‘cd Ceo ev @licre eRe Ree 
SL@LIt Z,) Seeme talse ents tase, he 5 sees a| <8 
PHALANX IT: * alle ck Saige ae a | ‘oe 
North Kurgan, Anau: | | 
No, LOOS'S Vester velere Srentioksse he sate. 43 | 33 | 37 | 27 | 26 | 29 ime 
NOMA DG store congas cis teers sree a AON SA e325 (e2Q) |e 32 1 33.1238 ; VS 
INOS 215 Poe. ie a nchavon Sees: A2e SOU 32a 1) oar 2Ouy 2S : 
INO 528: crac eevee sian wel 40 | 30 | 31 | 24 | 22 | 27 | 21 : 
No. GA Tw elarata cecie + teeadsts tive sls AT MeStuE SA 25 |, 240 fe? 5 oT 
INOW S4 ahd TeCbny ce oh een ne 40 | 29 | 31 | 24 | 23 | 24.| 29 
ie Be ie a: S Sport aemreh ae: 40 33 S65) 27 (hey hath} 35 
Os Oot OneeL ow eras tt. | 40 | 2 207 |t eee 2 eee 
INGHOT e--2 Sileetry ie ec- ares ie STAs ae sOe (27 e2o) | a2 | 35 
ie eo JG. be ermine 5a. 28.1. 30r])-26 20) | 2141623 a) 26 
DISSE ANIG Memenaart es on reacts eta AG") 32") 39] 26 | 26 |) 2 35 
Hostomitz (Mus. Teplitz)........... 44. A034 Naz hres 128) ) 307) 35 
Bos primigenius Robenhausen, , 6 a | 
ALCL RMTIMOY CL. cacmersvins, © cen! aan ae re 
«44 | 38 31 
PHALANX IIT: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
INO SO Fier t Meee AEN Sess et rote part 80 34 37 95 18 
IN OROO Tee tela ae eer iis ee lore ene ho mele 77 29 38 90 17 
NemSOR ews candi, tive sieatcys 71 25 a 85 17 
IN Op A Opie res elev clorsieueleasiars sisis- shay 5 67 26 35 7 18 
eNO OS are e wtetchangery x a eiecia': vies 65 23 33 73 T5 
FA DISMPATIST ea tverae ota ondie crete awe «5 80 32 37 95 Soper 














368 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters) —Continued. 






































% 
rength of | Letgthof'| Width of ) ons 
Lower jaw. Length. Kaine toothless ascending ae 2 
part. branch. glenoidalis. 
North Kurgan, Anau, No. 912, | 
de Srieet, Go ses we eee ee | ae tt Merce Deere 118 45 
Mummied bull of Abadieh | 
(Egypt), Mus. London..... .| 375 135 109 119 44 
Bos brachyceros, Walthamstow, 
coll, Duersts7... en eee : 318 oly 89 88 39 
Bos taurus macroceros: 
Watussi, Mus. Berlin........ 340 122 104 114 re 
Hungary, Mus. Vienna....... 395 136 86 118 44 
Somal, Mus: Beérlinz ns). .s. | 325 II4 93 Ill 
| 
Attee Length of bi of Ph of | gone fe! | Diameter of eater 
ee — we. | articulation. aperture. articulation. 
| North Kurgan, Anau, No. 
F507; 6 TCC. ee | 50 234 rs 143 52 112 
Bos primigenius Riitimeyer 56 255 147 150 ine 115 
































The horn-cores of the tame bovid of Anau are represented only by fragments 
of the bases, and by several pieces from the inner curve of the cores. The one 
measurable horn-base is about 23 cm.; one of the longest fragments of the inner 
curve of the core has a length of 24.2 cm., which corresponds to an approximate 
length of horn-core of 32 cm. We find in some subfossil and recent macroceros 
bovids the following corresponding dimensions in millimeters, and the horn-cores 
from Anau would, therefore, correspond very well to the old Egyptian bovid: 











| Circumference Length of Longitudinal ‘Transverse 
at base. horn-core. diameter. diameter. 
Egyptian long-horns from Abadieh 
(Mus. London): 
INO. Gis Sis ata es wee eres anne eee 160 aac 55 44 
INO} 5 nesee tele ae eee ee 190 270 64 56 
Hungarian bull, Vienna............ 250 520 66 84 
Apisiskulltof Hallesacnes i cee nee 270 405 























As in my memoir on the Fauna of the Schlossberg zu Burg a. d. Spree (pp. 
254, 255) and the size of the domestic cattle found there, so in this case I shall 
calculate the height of the withers from the separate bones, in order to make 
clear the form and size of the Anau bovid. 

For Bos namadicus, calculating the length of lower jaw, the length of skull 
along the base is 51 cm. and the height of the withers in the live animal is 149 cm. 

For Bos taurus macroceros we obtain, according to comparative measurements, 
and basing our calculation on the metacarpus, which has a distance of 60 cm. 


from its distal end to the proximal end of the radius, a height of the withers in 
the living animal of 153 cm. 


CAVICORNIA. 369 


Some comparative withers heights are given below: 


Bos primigenius, skeleton at Berlin............... 168 
Bos namadicus, Narbada Valley «India, calculated 
from the length of the skull (50.8 cm.) in the 


BritisheMiUseiiniaee cs ae he ie verte. f erie 149 
PS OGMAMOLLCUS ANA mere eters wielee Gielen «sie each 149 
Apis skeleton (Bos tawrus macroceros) Paris........ 154 
BOSMMUTUS ANACHOCETOSSUATION to icloiie ce cee eve te steels 153 
ERUNSATIAN Caltleemp eevee me Maree: catty ecrettrt races) © 150 
SUAOTE VOI Callie re oc sans oa wo ew yee ae rh nie co 149-122 
PactiPristan cattle fs ooo cates tee tee 149-137 
Swisshommmentalicattlern comdcteie scsheres) se esettrarels oe 145-137 


It is probable that the measurement calculated from the lower jaw for Bos 
namadicus is rather small, because the lower jaw is perhaps that of a smaller or 
female individual. We have unfortunately no means of checking this, unless 
we calculate the height of the withers from the width of the metacarpus. This 
small measurement, however, leaves a very uncertain result. We obtain 158 cm. 
in our special case. In any event, the two calculated withers heights suffice 
perfectly to show that we have to do with large, stout bovids, in both wild and 
domesticated forms. 

We can therefore recapitulate as follows concerning the results of our study 
of the bovids of Anau: 

In the lower layers of the period Ia, from —24 feet upward, there occur the 
remains of a wild Bos namadicus Falconer & Cautley. During period Id there 
originates from this wild form a domesticated bovid, large and stately, provided 
with long horns. Judging from the measurements of the preserved bones, this 
is absolutely the same ox that was possessed by the ancient Egyptians. In the 
period II the size of the animal seems to have somewhat diminished, unless possibly 
a smaller bovid may have reached Anau with the other newly imported domestic 
animals. It is, however, possible that this small form of cattle of the culture II 
originated in a decline of the cattle-breeding of the later Anau-li; as indeed the 
originally large, long-horned ox of the early Babylonians had already become 
small and short-horned in Assyrian times, and to-day, after a relatively shorter 
interval, shows a tendency to become hornless. The existence of the short-horned 
cattle in Western Central Asia is also shown by the discovery of a skull in a kurgan 
of bronze time in Bizino, near Tobolsk (plate 78, fig. 6). 

We find the long-horned form of domestic cattle already in the time of the 
Babylonians about 4000 to 5000 B. c., in Mesopotamia, as appears on a cylinder 
seal of those times. We see on this seal the representation of two oxen, moving 
through a field of grain. Still better known and more available for comparison, 
because of the greater quantity of existing bone, whole skeletons, skulls, etc., 
is the occurrence of long-horned cattle dating from the earliest times in Egypt. 
I have previously discussed the connection of these bovids with the African 
and European forms. It follows clearly from the distributions of the long-horned 
cattle over Asia and Europe that the Anau bovids also had an influence in forming 
the European domestic cattle, as we shall endeavor to show later. 


370 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


OVINA. 
WILD SHEEP. 
Ovis vignei arkal Lydekker. (See plate 75, fig..1; plate 76, figs. 1-4 and 8; plate 82, fig. 2). 


Among the bones which are assignable to the sheep there are several frag- 
ments of very large horn-cores, which could in part be put together, forming then 
the calvarium (plate 75, fig. 1). This comes from culture Ia layers from a depth 
of —2o feet and, therefore, belonged to a contemporary of the oldest period. 

In order to identify this fragment of a skull we must first learn whether we 
have to do with a wild or domesticated sheep. This question, thanks to the better 
bones, is easier to determine than it was in the case of the Anau bovids. There 
is no domestic sheep which shows horns corresponding even approximately to 
these horn-cores. We find them, however, among wild sheep. 

Among the wild sheep that might come in question are those of the steppes, 
Ovis orientalis Gmelin (Ovis arkal Brandt) and those of the Kopet Dagh, which 
Lydekker calls Ovis vignet arkal. 

It is now evident that, even according to Lydekker, there is no great difference 
between these two forms of sheep, and that it will not be possible to show any 
differences from the few bones, since the species and subspecies are based only 
on characters of skin and horn. I would remark here that in my preliminary 
report of last year to Professor Pumpelly, without then knowing cf the occurrence 
of the urial in the Kopet Dagh, I wrote: ‘‘ These large spongy horn-cores seem to 
belong to the forms of Ovis orientalis Gmelin, seu O. arkal Brandt, although they 
are but little different from Ovis vigner Blyth.” 

The Kopet Dagh sheep was named Ovis arkal in 1857 by Blasius and is evi- 
dently allied to the urial of the Punjab race, with which Lydekker has proposed 
to identify it.* 

In a more recent treatiset Lydekker studies an adult skull of this animal 
and says: 

It will be remembered that the Punjab race of the urial (Ovis vignei cycloceros), at any rate as exempli- 
fied by the specimens from Peshawer and Afghanistan in the British Museum, differs from the typical 
Ovis vignet of Astor and Ladak in the much greater prominence of the two front angles of the horns, which 
are often raised into nodose beads, between which the front surface of the horn is depressed and carries 
bold and widely separated transverse ridges. In the Kopet Dagh urial the prominence of the front angles 
of the horns is still more pronounced, though the beading is somewhat less conspicuous. Moreover, the 
front surface of the horn is unusually broad and flattened, with the transverse wrinkles very low and indis- 
tinct. The length of the horn is 33 inches along the inner front angle, with a basal circumference of 11 
inches, a basal width of 3 inches and a basal depth of 4 inches. 

The last two dimensions are considerably greater than in a skull of the urial, measured by Mr. Hume, 
in which the length along the curve is 35 inches. 

The Kopet Dagh urial appears decidedly to be a distinct form connected with the typical Ovis vignet 
by the Punjab race of that species. 


On these grounds I regard it as a local race, rather than a species; its name will accordingly be Ovis 
vignet arkal (or perhaps arca/). 





* Tydekker, Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goat, p. 173. 
{ Lydekker, Note on the Wild Sheep, of the Kopet Dagh, Proc. Zool. Soc., Feb. 3, 1903, pp. 102-3. 


PLATE 75. 





Fic. 1. Skull (posterior view) with incomplete horn-cores from Ovts vigner arkal of Anau, period Ia. 
2. Skull (posterior view) of Ovis aries palustris, Anau, period I. (Compare plate 83, fig. 2.) 
3. Skull (lateral view) of hornless sheep of period II (restored). 


gente 
pants ¥ 
Cee 





PLATE 76. 








Fic. 7. Horn-core of Ovts palustris form. 


Fic. 1. Median part of carbonized horn-core of Ovis vignet 
arkal, 8. Metacarpus of Ovis vignei arkal. 
2. Basal part of another horn-core of same. 9. Metacarpus of goat. 
3-4. Horn-cores of female individuals of Ovis vignet 10. Basal part of antler of Cervus. 
arkal. 11-13. Horn-cores of antelope (Gazella subgutturosa), 
14. Horn-core of goat. 


5-6. Horn-cores of large-horned breed of sheep. 


CAVICORNIA. Crt 


Now, Anau lies just at the foot of the Kopet Dagh and within the area of 
distribution of Ovis vignet arkal; it is, therefore, most probable that we have 
to do with the remains of a mountain sheep still living in the Kopet Dagh and not 
with those of an inhabitant of the broad steppes of Persia and Asia Minor. We 
can, therefore, reasonably exclude the Ovis orientalis, 7. e., the steppe form of the 
wild sheep, from further consideration and say logically that we have before us 
Ovis vignet arkal Lydekker. As I am not able to give a direct comparison of our 
horn-cores with the original skulls of the Kopet Dagh sheep in the British Museum, 
I shall take for comparison two skulls of Ovis vigner that are preserved in Berlin 
and London, and shall contrast them with the measurements of the Ovis ophion 
of Cyprus and the Persian Ovis arkal seu orientalis. From these measurements 
it results that the agreement is closest with Ovis vignet cycloceros of the Punjab, 
and that the difference in dimensions of the two recent Ovis vigner skulls from 
Ladak and the Punjab is more noticeable than that between the skulls of Anau 
and all the others here brought into comparison with them. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 





North Kurgan, Anau. Punjab. 





























| | Ovis pl oie | era oh lea 5 
. us as VES 
Skull. secon e phion, | vignet, | arkal, 
—21feet. | —15 feet. | + 26 feet. Mus. : Mus. No. 666, Mus. 
Berlin, | London. | London. Paris. 
Greatest width of frontal bones......) 125 Lege Wr | ee Ua) 125 145 134 
WeAStE WILE VOI Satie) ia a etter ce 4) «0 | OSM ees: auth ee 94 93 Cir 98 
Front line between: base of horn-cores.| 2, Tate se 17* | 22% 18* 25% 
Back line between base of same...... | re tad oe 89* 103* 133* 118* 
Greatest width of occiput........... al Waotaes ae 78 79 96 | 88 
Weastewidth: Of SAMC..c.6c.¢.c.00 2056 | 55 oer Arlee Sr 60 62 58 
Greatest height of same............. om, era acanes 56 64 64 | 54 
Wereteeroit Of SAMIE = 5.65/86. wine: sue 43 42 47 52 46 
Greatest width of parietals.......... 91 82 80 89 83 
Measts width of Sameiio......<s.5c.- | 57 51 54 60 BG 
Parieralemeroht 2s rem aecn . oh oss. 7] 30 eee 23 33 30 39 
Longitudinal diameter of horn-base.. . Beast ie Noe el he 70 95 85 
Longitudinal diameter of base of 
PUITSECOLE A pecs. fale sacs cs PAs 62 | 70 67 52 54 63 58 
Transverse diameter of baseofhorn...) .... | .... netics 44 ive =| 69 58 
Transverse diameter of base of horn- | | | 
TT Da, 2 aaa ee 45 | Soe Ga 32 2a 44 {1 
Circumference of horn-base......... oe Rare See 195 205 | 200 200 
Circumference of base of horn-core... 180 200 | L7Oan 175 180 | 180 180 
Betoun Ot mOrm-COLr@ se we seine nl ee eet 250 | | 220 
Distance: between, joints... 6. ae oe « © 310 360 | 
| 











* Measurements taken on the horns, and not on the horn-cores, 


It is clear that we have here a wild sheep that corresponds excellently well 
with the Ovis vignet. The horn measurements given by Lydekker for the Ovzs 
vignet of the Kopet Dagh, if applied to the horn-cores in the manner followed 
with the skulls already mentioned, would correspond to a longitudinal diameter 
of about 70 mm. and a transverse diameter of about 54 mm., and would, therefore, 
agree very closely with the horn-cores of the Anau wild sheep from the culture 
period Ta in the depth of —15 feet. 


372 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


A second category of horn-cores also belongs here. It is difficult to dis- 
tinguish them in size from those which in the next section we shall indicate as 
belonging to Ovs arkal palustris, but upon taking these cores into the hand one 
recognizes, by the exceptional weight as well as by the remarkably hard structure 
of the core to which the exceptional weight is due, that we have here something 
different. In addition to this, the shape of the horn-core is somewhat different, 
becoming more sharply pointed towards the ends. 

These characteristics suffice to assign these horn-cores to the females of the 
Ovis vignet arkal. A confirmation of this is found in a frontal piece, which, from 
the peculiar form of the superorbital part of the frontal bone, seems to have 
belonged to a female skull of Ovis vignet. 

In the following table are given the dimensions of this bone in comparison 
with those of the adult female, Ovis vignei of the Salt Range, in the British Museum, 
and also the dimensions of the horn-cores. ; 


Table of dimensions, female Ovis vigner (in millimeters). 








Frontal bone. Horn-cores. 





Greatest} Least 
width | width Long 
between | between | diameter 


| | Circum-| Longi- | Trans- 
| pro-_ | bases of | of 
| 
| 


Length. | ference ieee ace 
, at base, (dlameter| diameter 
cessus | horn- | orbita. ‘| at base. | at base. 


orbitalis., cores. | 








| North, Korrgpans Anat sree ee as | 10.3 72 35 ere ateeihe or kets 
= TS fECE ON cee ee pte Cee ae By ane rae fhe 150 83 30 17 
| 2+ 8 fet rahe cs tat scree eet tek ahs bhepeh 144 80 28 18 























| Salt Range, Tadia® © 90. 5 wavs fee <6 ae 10.5 74 36 75 82 28 19 
| / | 


* Horn-cores No, 666 K, British Museum. 





The peculiar form of these bones and the curvature of the horn-cores make 
it certain that they belong to a female Ovis vignet. Which bones of the trunk 
and extremities are to be assigned to the Ovis vignez it is naturally difficult to say. 
Only out of the aifference in size, as contrasted with those of Ovis palustris, is 
it possible to draw some slight inferences. Therefore we will be right in assigning 
all the large extremity bones from the lower culture-strata to the wild sheep, 
while bringing them into the same tables with the domesticated sheep. 


DoMESTIC SHEEP. 


We now pass to the consideration of a series of horn-cores which are sharply 
distinguished, as I have already said, from those of the Ovis vignet. They are 
of almost similar aspect and form, but are shorter, somewhat more slender, and 
lighter and more porous in structure. This last characteristic seems particularly 
important; as except for it I might properly be confronted with the objection 
that these horn-cores perhaps belonged to younger or female individuals of the 
Ovis vignet. This objection, however, is contradicted by the more porous structure, 
the more extensive formation of sinus in the interior of the horn-core and their 
consequently thinner walls; for it is firmly established, that under domestication 


CAVICORNIA. 373 


and its influences, the substantia compacta of the bones in all ruminants loses 
in hardness and weight, making the spongiosa more prominent. <A further proof 
exists in the deep furrowing and roughness of the exterior of the cores, which is 
always an evidence of adult age. 

In ascending through the culture-strata the horn-cores of the sheep become 
smaller and more slender and, in the larger forms, almost two-edged in cross- 
section. The conclusion is easy to draw that we have here the successive remains 
of the domesticated wild sheep, gradually altered in character through the process 
of domestication, which began with the taming of the ancestral form represented 
in the lower culture-strata. 

Ovis aries palustris Riitimeyer. (See plate 75, fig. 2; plate 76, figs. 5-7; plate 83, fig. 2.) 

The sheep represented in the fully preserved calvarium (No. 21) from +23 
feet in the eneolithic culture-strata Ib is, according to all the characteristics 
of the horn-cores, which are two-edged along almost their whole length, an Ovis 
aries palustris, a ‘‘turbary sheep’’ of Riitimeyer, in a form which closely resembles 
those found by Studer* and by Glurf in the Swiss lake-dwellings of Lake Bienne. 
It is a form with a little larger horn than those of this breed still living in Wales 
and Iceland and in small numbers in the mountains of the Grisons. But is it 
possible that a tame turbary sheep (Torfschaf) can have originated from a wild 
Ovis vignet arkal Lydekker? 

In a former memoir Gaillard and I{ undertook to show that C. Keller§ was 
wrong in his view that the turbary sheep was derived from the African Barbary 
sheep (Ammotragus tragelaphus). We reached the conclusion, then, that Ovis 
vignet must have been the ancestral form of the turbary sheep, and although we 
had at that time no direct proof to offer, it must be the case on account of the 
horns, which present the distinguishing, if not the only, characteristic of the 
turbary sheep. 

The horns of the Barbary sheep develop, according to my investigations 
on more than twenty heads of young lambs of Ammotragus tragelaphus, in round 
and cone-shaped structures which retain the conical form till late old age. In the 
turbary sheep (at least that which C. Keller considers to be the so-called Nalpser- 
schaf, from the Alp-Nalps in Canton Grisons) the young horn is pressed wholly 
flat and scabbard-like. I have confirmed this on individuals which C. Keller himself 
bought for the zoological park of Ziirich, and which later came to me by purchase 
and are now in my experimental flock, where they are being studied with reference 
to the question of their derivation. Further, this peculiarity is clearly recog- 
nizable in the English turbary sheep of Wales and the Hebrides. 

Now, the lamb and the female of Ovis vigner show the same form of horn- 
sheath, as will be seen in the picture; but since my researches on the origin and 


*Studer, Th., Die Tierwelt in den Pfahlbauten des Bielersees. Mitteilungen Naturf. Gesell., Bern, 
11 Heft, 1882. 

+Glur, G., Beitraege zur Fauna der Pfahlbauten. Mitteilungen Naturf. Gesell., Bern, 1894. 

t Duerst & Gaillard, Studien ueber die Geschichte des aegyptischen Hausschafes. Receuil de travaux 
relatifs 4 la philologie et l’archéologie égyptiennes, vol. XxIv, pp. 44-76. Paris. 

§C. Keller, Die Abstammung des Buendnerschafes und Torfschafes. Schweiz. Naturf. Versammlung, 
Chur, 1900.—Die Abstamm. d. alt. Haustiere. Ziirich, 1902. 





374 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


development of horns* have shown that it is the horn-sheath which causes the form 
of the horn, and since, on the other hand, a retardation of the development occurs 
under domestication in the sense that the growth of the horn remains fixed at the 
stage of an earlier youthful form, it is easy to understand that only a sheep which 
is flat-horned in its youth could have produced a sheep with compressed horns like 
the turbary sheep of Riitimeyer. é 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 












































| - Eo ieeay “ee og ‘2 
| s lds | 10 a =i Ay 
<a oan ee mw & L 
| > Bm | 8g bp oO < 
= CS - e ae = ar 5 
Skull of Ovts aries palustris Riitimeyer. ape ee | 23 : = oO | g 
ge) oe ) pees) oes a ae ae 
GE ae ahd ©} yn ey 
| se | seg|eee| EG | dee] & 
ee ae ers ed rh a gzA 7) 
iY Sz n S R= Oo x 
= a =e == =— = | = | —— <i —_—— —-| 
Front line between base of horn-cores......... 25a tS 65 43 47 45 
Back line between base of same.............. 73 78 81 81 82 76 
Greatest width of occiput. ewer sees Pees 67 69 67 69 
Least width-ot same: (ao..we wets erate Ngee 50 39 48 42 
Greatest height Of same: jo nc ascuie e  eee AQ 49 50 49 51 
Least height‘of same@o. og4. mast nen ase 34 32 30 34 
Greatest width. of parietals 7. .2,.mcsueen 62 | 68 73 68 69 
Least: width of Same. sie ance eee 41 | 40 39 41 4I 
Parietal heighit se. 20 Aone oe oe eed ee <7) ee 28 29 22 30 
Longitudinal diameter of horn-core........... 45 37 28 52 26 29 
Transverse diameter of same..............-.. 26 18 20 21 ri 20 
Circumference of corejat basesnc ee tee TLS en LOO: 79 95 75 87 
| Length ofsbor-core sa ceeweeure nea an een 195. 0'b> 178= i Erse 110 80 110 
| Distance between points.................00. 248." il voirae I pees Ae 169 
Length | Length Width of 
: . Entire of of vertical 
Lower jaw of adult Ovis. "fe ee part be- 
| length. | dental toothless hires 
series. part. BS 
North Kurgan, Anau: | 
wm £5 Fett vcd wick ie 0s teenies Sie OR at aaa eae *180 (?) 76 45 *60 (?) 
= 15 feet ite. car ca hee ce eee nee eee Ree 78 45 see 
“6 feet 0. Seve earache on Aer cere ete Ties aes 54 
+20 feet ccgptiia piv sauaists bx eae errant eee nena eee eee 167 71 43 59 
+23 feet a3. Bi 2 aes Aen eee ee eee 152 71 42 46 
+24 feet .. ete tguae ee ot ree aia ee bie ha arene 170 a1 48 50 
Outs mignet, Ladaks Mus, London: see ee See 190 81 47 56 
Ovis aries palustris, from Ireland, Mus. Paris..........| L73 71 42 5! 
| 





























* Measurements on incomplete pieces. 


The appearance of the horn-cores of the turbary sheep and the goat-horned 
sheep mentioned in the eneolithic and copper-culture strata of Anau may, there- 
fore, easily be considered the remains of an autochthonously derived domesticated 
form, especially because of the quantity of transitional forms to the large-horned 
sheep. 





* Duerst, Versuch einer Entwicklungsgeschichte der Hoerner der Cavicornia, Frauenfeld, 1902. Sur 
le développement des cornes chez les Cavicornes. Bull. Mus. d’Hist. Nat., 1902, p. 197. 


CAVICORNIA. ans 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 




















{ 
Circum- | yonee Transverse 
Horn-cores. Length. ference tia a diameter 
at base, | “ameter | at base. 
at base. 
North Kurgan, Anau: 

Ovis vignet arkal Lydekker : 
pr CC UM cet ei tathe Rciant, vor wirene Aaa AEM ATS nee i 250 180 || 62 45 
SPER WTSTE Saws Gia Chae tA OA Rea TAR ee ec ee ene 200 70 53 
Tre Ol COLRM MERE Pars av atr cic oie rere en TO isl arose. os oe ane 170 67 43 

Probably domesticated, small-horned specimen, form- | | 

ing connection with the real Ovis palustris: ; | " 
Fade) boa) Aes of NF gems NH CGA ee Wut ee. S7 ae 
r 110 94 2 20 

SBOXON abe BINS ahs hoe ASS Or eNO CIEE Cate ae 130 120 41 26 

Stee SLCC CMa Meee iy segs nea uitanehaaitebein sath ke shesiaiore fei 106 93 2 22 

a POLIO BS Salotr SSO SO OR CCR 0 cate Ce Cie Sree 117 112 2 27 

Ovis artes palustris Riitimeyer: ( 117 73 25 16 

S AOIPM estooeas “fh bea Ch cin’ ORD CHGS Mee merepemraes cer ~ 97 72 2 14 
(| 114 73 25 14 
SEG Vs OS Sc he So EO OREO OER Ce EO 75 72 25 14 
Types of Ovis aries palustris: 

England: 
WeaaValleya(collCornen\ens ose re eins cee 85 70 2 I4 
Londonwall, Roman times (coll. Corner)...... | cate 105 32 a 

( 105 85 36 16 
Vea alluvittm; The Mills; London............'.. 70 54 15 15 

Germany: 

Naegelstedt neolithic, Prehistoric Museum, ( 130 100 a0 22 
JSYeSa Dal cnc, Seki Sema eb is BCE Mt eee ae ‘ 110 102 39 21 
wciitossberes leaelenetan yas eset suse « clarelen oa iets 100 75 26 ars 

France: 

Grotte dtPontil, Nat. Hist. Mus..........4.... 120 100 40 20 
Pile-dwellings of Paladru, Paris............... 75 80 23 16 

Switzerland: 

ScHiais =neGltciiew: Delile sryeie cs heeds Se wv nee. 78 100 37 18 
al Seer CCN premier te eres sielrcre car's = </e\c-> «ies 80 75 22 19 

















It may be objected, however, that the turbary sheep might have been imported 
from elsewhere in the culture period II, and that the different large-horned domestic 
sheep were only the products of crossing with the wild sheep or with some other 
large-horned domestic sheep, such being found in the pile-dwellings of the Lake 
of Bienne, as Ovis aries sluderi, or as products of the crossing of the wild Medi- 
terranean mouflon on Ovis palustris. The decision between these two possibilities 
would not be fully possible had not Professor Pumpelly conducted the excavation 
of the bones with the greatest care throughout. It is of the greatest importance 
to us that we know exactly the depth from which each fragment of bone was 
taken; and it follows that we are able to make the following statement concerning 
‘the position in the stratified series, and consequently the relative time of appearance : 

Ovis vignet arkal Lydekker occurs practically throughout all the strata; the 
best-preserved piece comes from the lowest layer at — 20 feet, the second at —15 
feet, other small pieces of horn-cores at +18 feet, +21 feet, and a good piece 
again at +26 feet. Therefore, this animal was hunted and eaten by the inhabi- 
tants of the North Kurgan down to the copper period. 


376 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


At +8 feet we find for the first time a well-preserved core of a domesticated 
sheep, which belongs to the already mentioned large-horned form. It is the same 
as the Ovis vignet horn-cores, but a little smaller. But in the same layer there 
occurs a second core, which is not derived from the same animal, as it is notably 
smaller, more slender and also of two-edged form. Further core-pieces occur 
frequently in all the following layers, the best-preserved of these cores being found 
at +20, +25, and +26 feet. These cores disappear then entirely and from there 
on we meet only with the very slender cores of Ovis aries palustris, horn-core 
bases, with both attached frontal pieces and middle pieces, being very common. 

The cores of Ovis aries palustris begin to appear, however, before the + 28- 
foot layer, 7. e., during the occurrence of remains of the large-horned form. ‘The 
calvarium already mentioned, shown in plate 75, fig. 2, comes from this layer. 
Its horns, which are still rather stout, indicate that the now-developing turbary- 
sheep form is yet in the process of evolution. The turbary-sheep form continues 
until the uppermost layers of the kurgan are reached. It becomes considerably 
rarer, however, above +33 feet and about that time there enters a hornless sheep, 
which we shall presently consider. Thanks to Professor Pumpelly’s care these 
closely accurate stratigraphic relations afford us weighty evidence that the Ovis 
palustris is autochthonous in this part of Turkestan and was bred from the Ovis 
vignet of the Kopet Dagh; for it is clear that here a few feet of culture-strata 
represent centuries during which a very great transformation could take place 
in the Anau sheep. 

In the tables on pp. 374-375, I have brought together the measurements of the 
horn-cores and the cranial remains from the layer +28 feet, in comparison with 
such specimens from European culture-strata. It is easily seen that the measure- 
ments agree with each other, serving merely to strengthen the impression made 
by the agreement in form. 


THE HORNLESS SHEEP OF THE COPPER PERIOD. 


(See plate 75, fig. 3.) 


In the former section it was shown that at about the +33 to +34-foot culture- 
layer the horned palustris sheep was crowded into the background by a hornless 
sheep, which suddenly appears in numerous individuals. As is well known it is 
difficult to find among the hornless sheep such differences in cranial structure 
as to permit a determination of the breed. ‘The skulls of hornless sheep and of 
goats are distinguishable from each other with difficulty when the sutures of the 
parietal bone are no longer recognizable. It is, therefore, impossible to determine 
the exact relationship of the hornless sheep of the II or copper-culture period. 
The dimensions of the skulls of different hornless sheep, brought together in the 
following table, show a perfect agreement with the hornless sheep skull from a 
turbary at Abbeville in France, preserved in the Museum of Natural History 
at Paris; but, on the other hand, the agreement of the measurements with those 
of the skull of an Ovis platyura bucharica ewe is very strong. 


CAVICORNIA. 377 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters), 



































5 ee ie oe &> Ovits aries, recent 

Seagal Ss 83 & specimen. 

Some SH | Se. 

Anau aod Ss Syeae 
, ro Ss wo = 
Skull. +34 ft. |< 8 oe SE A SE ey Cae. 

sues Ssg Be 3 | cogne. Ireland. 

1S S S 
Greatest lencthrotp basen ca accent oe > ile s 185 okie 190 214 212 197 
Lateral length of frontal (bregma to orbita).. .. 57 eee 63 80 74 75 
Length of molars of upper maxilla........... 35 39 45 48 43 44 
Kenguaror premolarsas 6. o5. seks ce erer sou: F 26 oT 21 25 19 19 
Sagittal length of frontal bones............. : 82 7 80 2 g2 82 
Erie OnRIgit ge cae. daa a sith ed 5 eee % 30 Sete oly) Bg 2 2 
BALICL ALS WiC himeentey oie Sockets atact eel cans a es 59 52 61 71 53 65 
Srealect Nersitt Of SKU mere mia are sete os Sap fH) Meee: 86 104 72 78 
Greatest neightrOr OCCLpPilt ae vein teniene te «| «ie. 2 2 59 48 48 
Weastaneic nt Ofcame sarees oe tee ete ele nck a aust 37 38 43 33 2 
(sreatest width of occiput.) 0.06 vy aioe: wee os 65 66 76 67 67 
east awidtiol cameras \isteree eters crs as, 42 | 43 55 44 41 
eastawidth ol 1rOmbearienrs + tira aaeye pte, «et 65 ene 66 68 63 69 
Greatestuwidthvorsamess ters. 6 as tae caertee. 104 108 109 119 117 119 
Distaneeibetween orbitals. a. 6.20 2. 2266s +4 sie see 75 71 77 76 77 
Width of palate behind molar y....5......... 48 39 45 58 50 52 
Width of palate in front of premolar 1........ 2 AG 2 26 2 2 

| 














This apparent resemblance does not, however, permit us to assume a rela- 
tionship to one of these forms, for it is readily seen from my former investigations 
into the influence of horns upon the shaping* of the skull, that the absence of 
horns produces uniform characteristics and that while considerable variance may 
exist in the absolute craniological dimensions, the relative dimensions always 
remain the same. Now, what can this hornless sheep form be, and whence can 
it have come? The bone remains give us no information on these points; and 
we must, therefore, resort to deduction and inference. 

Let us first examine the recent races of sheep of Turkestan. The Central 
Asiatic steppes harbor only two races of sheep, which are generally designated: 

(a) The fat-buttocked sheep (Ovis aries steatopyga Fitz); (b) the fat-tailed 
sheep (Ovis aries platyura Fitz). 

Ovis aries steatopyga is characterized by a posterior overloaded with fat, 
which on the buttocks projects upward in the form of a fatty protuberance which 
is split in the middle. The ram of this breed has horns of medium length which 
are thick and strong at the root and grow narrower towards the blunt point. 
The horns, without rising above the crown of the head, form, in winding, a double 
snail-shaped revolution back, down, and forwards. In the ewes and the wethers 
the horns are smaller and weaker, and curved only backwards and forwards. 
There occur at times four-horned and even five-horned rams in this race of sheep ; 
and, on the other hand, we find here and there hornless females. 











* Experimentelle Studien ueber die Morphogenie des Schaedels der Cavicornia. Vierteljahresschrift 
d. Naturf. Gesell. Ziirich, Jahrg. 1903, p. 360. 


378 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


The second race is the fat-tailed sheep (Ovis aries platyura), whose long, 
limply hanging tail, reaching to the heel joint, is surrounded by a mass of fat, 
which has, however, no great size. The rams of this race are horned; the ewes 
for the most part are hornless. The horns of the rams are not very long, nor 
particularly thick; they are three-sided, with rounded edges, of which the inner 
one is always sharper. ‘They rise slightly above the crown of the head and wind 
sideways and backwards from the root, forming then a simple helical turn down, 
forwards, and upwards, while the points turn somewhat inwards. 

In the neighborhood of Anau the Afghan Maimene breed predominates. 
It is a sheep of excellent flesh of large growth. The wool is long and coarse, and 
the tail long. The animals are in part horned and in part unhorned. In the 
other parts of Transcaspia the fat-buttocked sheep (Kurdjak breed) predominates. 

If now we visualize these forms of sheep, we can express the following ideas 
concerning the derivation of the hornless sheep of the culture-strata of the copper 
period of the North Kurgan, though these ideas can be but speculations. 

The hornless sheep may be: (a) a female of the previously occurring form, which 
we have designated Ovis palustris and whose horns had reduced in size; or, (b) a 
hornless race introduced from somewhere else with the camel and the goat. The 
sudden appearance of several hornless frontal pieces argues for the last hypothesis. 
As we shall see, there appeared another domestic animal at about this time or in 
the + 32-foot layer—the camel, of which no trace was found in all the earlier 
layers which have been so carefully searched. At the same time we meet another 
domestic animal, the goat (Capra hircus riitimeyert Duerst). 

The camel, the hornless sheep and the goat are, however, the animals found 
in the later South Kurgan, where there are few traces of other sheep. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 














Length Superior Width at Length of | Diameter of 
z : width. collum. articulation. | articulation. 
SCAPULA: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 

= 8 feet..cc nic hee eens Se sees 21 35 23 
— 8 feets 22 unser meee ets 19 a2 21 
~$ feet. j<. hele eres ce ae 17 27 19 
=" fet: nee oe ere ee 17 2 19 
=i! feats iene en nro ero ins 19 30 20 
4-1-7: feet 52: setae ors we 18 38 20 
+19 feet. ieee eee =% 20 33 19 
4-225 feet .8e.es ee Bee a 29 32 ie 
4-23 feet. 5 leacks cede od, 21 32 20 
+26 Teetiw:. ose cee ee $e 16 21 22 
1-26 Teetvenk Gaderer a 17 28 20 
Thala sel Calder, arbi wi Ae ae 21 35 oe 
32 Leetonia ee 17I 110 20 35 22 
$232 SECC cee ac cca eee aie 18 Bo 21 
33 feeto nen ee 2 34 24 
+ 92: feet ey. sae eee 20 Bt 19 
32. fet. tastin gee eas arate 22 33 25 
+132) TREE ss pons, es ee 5 a 28 18 

a3 2° fGGtE ae ee eee: 18 2 20 
32) feet tern: sree ae ee 7, 27 20 

| Ovis artes palustris, Nalps, coll 

Duérshet ee ee eee | 172 115 20 29 21 






































CAVICORNIA. 379 
Table of dimensions (in millimeters) .—Continued. 
: Width Width 
Proxi- pe Me- oe Distal | Distal | of in- | of ex- 
Length. | mal ma" | dian |. 248 | ©2182" | diam-| terior | terior 
width | diam- width diam-| idth. eter. | troch-| troch- 
Wetter, fimeCtek, ; 
lea. lea. 
HUMERUS: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
NOU 206 6 — Go LCC Rea crsie ens 138 38 43 18 20 30 Lz 13 
INOWI 304 pe 8 1eCin oes aos Arye et Mae Be 26 it) 14 
INOMLOOS5s 1222-05 feCU ers 30 19 14 
INGWO20) -1-22).5 feet. enacts 27 17 14 
INO TA S72 Selb nn «oct ae 27 17 1 
NOMS 5H wictno LCCLe rien. 32 20 15 
INom10325)-- 26 feetaannae. 32 20 13 
INOm WOO.8 1-2 ONL Cen ae nye ce 30 18 14 
NOMI O 7250-2 Or LeCte nares. 30 17 14 
Turbary sheep, Schlossberg...... ae Sheed Poe OR Arsat Wes. aul ee 18 14 
Recentisheep, Germany rie «i. 135 40 45 20 21 2 25 18 
RapIivus: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
NOP TeO8 4 —S teeta sass > Pa 35 17 5 dle’ 
Nos 1200)--—8 feet &. 3.30.00: sees 39 17 po tel eet wise a 
NOMS 30) eT Bulee@t ser. sae s.5 140 oF, 19 T4 8 29 14 
INOre (Ol a127 215 TCC Came. eras 6 156 30 14 16 9 3I 20 
INGE 1020.51 26) feet cm» atsncerais 160 30 14 14 9 28 19 
INO LOT Tse 2Oukeete a2 ca. om aes sas. cl aistere [pletecens 2 18 
INOS. 25°57 2s feet Macny eaten a3 14 15 9 See all pee 
INO OOSs.s2nreet.. oc tes. 30 14 14 9 Seat ae 
No. 943, + 32 feet, old animal. rites sein 7 9 30 20 | 
South Kurgan, Anau: 
SG Uh YS Ree in in eee 157 32 15 16 8 30 19 
Londonwall, Ovis artes palustris, | 4142 33 15 16 9 26 17 | 
DDreConmer OUGCOR ise vada... (157 30 14 17 9 29 19 
METACARPUS: 
North Kurgan, Anau: | 
Now 1202 — 15 feet Sack 23. 2: 26 18 15 12 fe | 
No. 12026, +15 feet........ 25 18 tere ef Te 
NOMEPS hI 2S feets 285.2501 < Le sie 22 16 
INOS 04 Osuring 2a CCL. 2 clever. etl 25 Ty oe 
INGRO22, ato a 2 eleebers. . si sistet, 20 15 Aare ae 
NOP O43) 132 1eCles, awe See See Mey eel becesiees Pree 22 14 | 
Walthamstow, Ovis aries palus- III 19 14 sus 8 21 1 
USHER ee eee ee cee 115 20 rr II 8 21 13 
Ovis aries studeri, Lea alluvium. .| $135 26 18 17 II 30 16 | .... 
(161 29 20 UG 12 31 18 
FEMUR: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
INOmI TOO; 26nleetmaee saree 43* 19 ucrehocalpecstare’s 
INGIETOGS a 2OMNeCeL tates : toh or BF 45 
INO#O62 5-2 7-1eeteniyac 2 Care 48* | 22 Me ee Ape sects MU rceeers. lat. te 
IN OMOSO 1 Sacleets yo tyes Sak AS lee 20 19 16 aS ry | Mac 
ING.3932, + 32 feet... aes etal oe since rs Mucaene re 35 43 
Ovis arves, German breed........ PANG: 6259) 31 20 18 48 54 
Ovis artes palustris, Nalps, coll. 
WDWErSU erat ity haere chee 185 AQ™ 22 18 15 36 44 
TIBIA: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
INGRY29 Ga —— oS teeta acter ac: 25 17 
No. 1484, +23 feet......... Poe, [eva 36 21 
INOH104357-1-26 feeti sy... « 44 45 Soa cee 
INOMI1034,---20.1eetemn eas. pec Wao 23 18 
INO 688207-27 Teets a. os ae es 21 17 
South Kurgan, Anau: 
INO 5 SO are. way tcc hee oe 34 38 
Ovis aries palustris Nalps, coll. 
DILCLS Uae teeaere star cis a creicie« too oke: 220 38 41 26 19 




















* Proximal width on the caput femoris. 




















380 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


The latter alternative does not appear to me to be sufficiently justified, and 
I incline rather to the first idea, for the following reasons. 

We find in the layer at +30 feet the frontal piece of an adult animal with a 
little horn-core of 3.5 cm. length and a circumference of 7.3 cm. ‘This cranial 
piece must represent a transitional form to Ovis palustris, especially as no mistake 
as to the age of this animal is possible, because of the presence of a parietal piece 
which is connected with the frontal by the sutura coronalis. If this cranial piece 
had belonged to a young animal it would have broken open along the sutures 
when the skull was crushed, while in the old individual as a matter of fact the 
suture is still so firm that the bones would break before the sutures would open. 
Thus it seems that the long-tailed Ovis palustris form may have given rise 
to the long-tailed sheep (Maimene breed) which is still living in those regions, 
provided always that the formation of the fat tail, which was probably patholog- 
ical, did not originate until after the distribution of the turbary sheep to Europe, 
which possibly happened towards the end of the eneolithic period of Anau. The 
occurrence to-day of hornless female animals among the fat-tailed sheep and 
turbary sheep renders this explanation more probable. However, this view 
rests only upon speculation, for direct proofs are not to be had and probably 
never will be. 

In the tables on pp. 378-379, the extremity bones of the sheep of the Anau 
kurgan are brought together and compared with some accurately determined ex- 
tremity bones of subfossil or recent sheep. In these one can see that the larger 
wild sheep or its direct descendants occurred in the lower layers, while in the 
middle and upper layers the small palustris sheep predominated. 

Capra hircus rutimeyeri Duerst. (See plate 76, figs. 9 and 14.) 

The goat, of which we find the horn-cores and extremity bones among the 
bone remains from Anau, belongs, as already stated, in the uppermost layers 
of the North Kurgan. Really typical and well-preserved remains are very scarce. 
Of these there are some horn-core pieces and two perfectly preserved metacarpi, 
as well as the fragment of another. In these we can recognize a small short- 
horned goat, such as lives still, in a slightly differentiated form, in Central, Eastern, 
and Southern Asia, as well as in the Malayan Archipelago. One of the most primi- 
tive forms is without doubt the so-called wild goat of Crete, which is probably 
only a reversion from the domesticated to a wild state, very similar to Capra 
egagrus, and in which is embodied the exact type of the goat of the pile-dwellings. 
M. Evans has published from his excavations at Cnosse (Crete) of the second 
palace (about 1500 B. Cc.) a very perfectly preserved relief in faience representing 
a she-goat with her young.* The horns of this animal are much longer than those 
of the recent goat from Crete, figured in plate 78, fig. 5. 

The horn-cores differ from those of the sheep in the greater height to which 
the inner cavity extends, which leaves room for only a little dense substance at 
the point of the horn-core. 








* Salomon Reinach, La Créte avant |’Histoire, 1’ Anthropologie, 1904, p. 265, fig. 7. 


CAVICORNIA. 381 


In their dimensions they are similar to those of the palustris sheep. A horn- 
core, unfortunately preserved only with the basal part, belonging to an old indi- 
vidual, and marked as an old he-goat by distinct frontal bumps, is the only one 
that shows any larger measurements. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 














| Proxi- Me- : Longi-| Trans-| ,. 
Length, |e) mal) ME | dian [Distal BS! cadinal verse | eum 
Detain diam- | width diam- | width. ater diam- | diam- eehaee 
Veter. eter. DRpGLeE, Weeler. ial 
| 
| HORN-CORES: 
Anau 
) Female cords ene TSM te ee! ees ack it -scs es 20 14 73 
| Penile is Gan wares EOE re Abaco ae Naan es Piety MSE 19 85 
Wale crepes sk. ie ssrcs Sele Pe Gi omnes ll Geese Mek ot ai al Oat ieee | re eg 40 28 |ca.120 
Capra hircus, male, Tur- 
kestan, Mus. Paris.... 250 SCAG ot tees, alec Re eee eo ee 54 39 150 
Capra hircus, Malay 
Archipelago, coll. by 
Hombrone and. Jac- 
GR TVSNO EA aia oe 100 ete Were vcaigerurce Theres Ms Gs fe ota « 26 15 74 
Capra cretensis Brisson, 
Crete, Mus. Paris. 120 Ce Le MIE oreSs taal ros iat Wetsiohs s alyteaaces 22 13 65 
METACARPUS: 
Anau 
Xda. Mewes eee 102 26: 16 15 9 Pig) 16 
TENGE ONG: Rene re 6 re 98 20 14 14 8 23 13 
Anau City, M.S. 1v, — 16 
to —17 feet, recent....| .... “OOo Berke Cee 9 25 15 stan 
Gross Czernosek, Bohe- 
mia, Mus. Teplitz. . 99 20 14 x2 8 24 I4 
Stockholm, Kungstrad- 
garden (King’s Gar- 
dens): : 
Subfossil goats*.... 102 23 Hours 16 eee 23 Oe SMAI poate Ie ees eames at 
Subfossil sheep | 
after Kinberg, ( 107 22-5 15 27 
SAGE: yf el oe . 98 22 14 24 
( 102 18 ane 10 ia 20 Peco Se eet Pee Oh ft 
Schlossberg, Ovis aries 
DOLUSENUS arr eae ti 103 18 12 8 7 9 8 
Sardegna, Ovis musimon, 
COUP Duerstem ree ee 135 28 21 14 12 25 17 






































*Kinberg, T. G., ‘‘Ossa metacarpi et metatarsi, Ovis et Capre.’’ Ofversigt Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akadem. Forhandlinger, 
1869, pp. 359-433. 


Although Riitimeyer* states that only the hoof phalanges and joint-surfaces 


of the bones are useful in deciding between the goats and the sheep and that the 
goat shows a deerlike delicacy of the bones, later investigationst have shown 
that the metacarpalia and tarsalia are good characteristics for a diagnosis, since, 
contrary to the general view as well as to Rtitimeyer’s assertion, these bones 
are much broader and shorter in the goat than in the sheep. 

This appears clearly in the above dimensions, since the distal width of an 
equally long metacarpus of a goat and a palustris sheep is three times as great 
in the former as in the latter (27 mm.: 9 mm). 








* Fauna der Pfahlbauten, p. 127. 

+Cornevin et Lesbre, Caractéres ostéologiques differentiels de la chévre et du mouton. Bull. Soc. 
Anthrop., Lyon, 1891. Kriz, Martin, Die Hoehlen in den maehrischen Devon-Kalken, ete. Jahrbuch der 
k. k. geolog. Reichsanstalt, Wien, pp. 443-579. 


382 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


ANTELOPINZ. 


Gazella subgutturosa Gueldenstedt. (See plate 76, figs. 1 I-13 and plate 84.) 

Several of the best-preserved bones of all the layers belong to the Gazella 
subgutturosa Gueldenstedt, the small but beautiful antelope that still lives in Persia 
and Turkestan. There are both horn-cores and teeth, parts of lower jaws and 
extremity bones, which make the presence of the animal very evident. It occurs 
frequently from the lowest layers below the level of the plain to the summit of 
the kurgan. 

It is clear that this swift game was successfully hunted by the inhabitants 
of culture period I of the kurgan. Assuming with Mucke,* that the wild animals 
of such an early period would show no great fear of man, it nevertheless seems 
strange that they could be killed without the aid of the dog, and it is probable 
that a dog, if not the same as the one we find in the higher layers, existed also 
at the earlier period, although no bones were discovered. 

The great hardness and the absence of cavities in the horn-cores have served 
well to protect the remains of this animal from destruction by tooth and time. 
The color of the horn-cores is different from that of the inclosing earth, ranging 
from dark-red to light-yellow. In the following table are given the dimensions 
of some of these in the order of their position in the kurgan and in comparison 
with the measurements of the head of a modern individual. These animals are 
also represented in the sculptures of the ancient Assyrians (plate 84). 


Table of dimensions (tn millimeters). 















































; 2 Width of Circum- 
Diameter Circum- Length. 
Horn-cores. Length. | anterior to Fraeaeies ference | frontal of ae ference 
posterior. lameter| on base. between sheet of horn- 
horn-cores. ‘ base. 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
=~ 2 feet... sci 45 vemme ees 160 30 22 89 14 
m= Te TOCE ic Misctiee + bin wee eet 155 30 22 go elete 
—(9 Leet s.2. magic we bye eee 175 31 21 90 
8.5 Te@tinc .t.ad.50 pee 145 38 27 105 
Ais teeti... ocak acs is Mame 165 34 24 100 
seo B7- TORE enews oy enn 165 32 24 92 
27 feet sk Keen tee ae 210 at 23 90 
-30 feet. xa siieseare eee 170 34 24 94 
Gazella subgutturosa, stuffed 
male adult specimen, Mus. 
Betn fase ee eee eee eta ia ste 34 25 ates 15 
CERVIDA. 


THE STAG OF PERSIA. 


Cervus sp. [maral Ogilby{(?)]. (See plate 76, fig. 10.) 

This great deer is represented by the remains of an antler. The main branch 
has been knocked off with a sharp instrument and only the crown or burr remains. 
The circumference is 25 cm. In the European stag from the Schlossberg I found 
24.5 cm. in eighteen antlers and 19 cm. in twelve. It is probably C. maral Ogilby, 
but for lack of material this can not be proved. 








*Mucke, Urgeschichte des Ackerbaues und der Viehzucht. Greifswald, 1898. 
Gray, Cervus wallichit. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1850, p. 228, 1840, p. 11. 


CAMELID. 383 
CAMELID&. 


Camelus sp. [bactrianus Erxel (?)]. (See plate 73, figs. 10 and 11; plate 77, figs. 10-12.) 

Bones of the camel are found only in the highest layers of culture II or the 
copper period of the North Kurgan. The phalanx secunda, No. 615, came from 
between +26 to +31 feet, and the fourth vertebra cervicalis, No. 1062, from 
+32 feet. No remains of the camel were found below these layers, though we 
naturally find them again in the shafts of the much later Anau citadel, where 
they can be but a few centuries old. It is therefore very probable that the camel 
was imported as a domestic animal at a much later time than the age of the lower 
strata of the North Kurgan. However, even the complete absence of bones of a 
wild camel in the layers of culture I is no reason to conclude positively that this 
animal was not then living in a wild state in this region, for Przewalski found 
it still in a wild state near Lob-Nor, south of the Tian Shan. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 











. n 7) K bh h 
© 3 a A} Se ie 
i - _ 
7 i ha a Bye Saeco Ne a(n 
s|/si/3/8ie|/e]os8|] 8) a.) 82) 83) = 
Gn Visca ins a ek i (= Ge ee g Se at ae a 
1 — Lo} ow » v HS et Oe cay rs) 
2 NP ca Pita ae RS a ah G9 RC Ms 
ee wage eS eee har Poke bog 
Fey Sr ane es bo ere he Aan hoe 
5 © eae 
heer Si POA I 5 eS = = S 
PHALANX I: 
Anau City mosque 
shafts— 9 to—11fect.j104 | 44 | 34 | 21 | 22 | 37 | 28] .... | 
Camelus bactrianus, 
anult (Mae, Bern). «| 91 1740 | 32 | 20 [19 | 33 | 24] .... | coon 
PHALANX II: 
North Kurgan, Anau, 
eo letOnt=oOmeet.y nle74. 35 13027 tio. 1 AT | 19 
Camelus bactrianus, 
adult (Mus. Bern)....| 56 | 28 | 21 | 21 | 14 | 30 | 11 
FourRTH VERTEBRA CERVI- 
CALIS: 
PATIAI SNOUT OO2:.72 ste = Bi Neen lh gd hee age esc iaeal er 138 58 108 741 69 62 
Camelus  bactrianus 
Docs GUAE Mets e ed Mall or Saal gic] en oceh ea IRS 120) SOM ICO 69 68 60 















































It is impossible to determine exactly the species to which the Anau camel 
may have belonged; but historical reasons and considerations of geographical 
distribution make it seem probable that it was of the Bactrian race of camel, 
and therefore two-humped. This is only our opinion, however, for the differences 
between the skeleton of the one-humped dromedary and the two-humped Bac- 
trian camel are very slight and not perceptible in the well-preserved bones of the 
kurgan. The Anau camel was certainly a large animal, as will be seen from the 
preceding table of dimensions, where it is compared with the skeleton of a camel 
preserved in the Museum of Bern. 

Fossil remains of the camel have been found in the Siwalik Hills of Northern 
India and in later Pleistocene deposits in Lutschka, near Sarepta, on the Volga, 
north of the Caspian, the latter having been published by Nehring under the name 





384 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


of Camelus knoblochi. Stefanesku discovered in Roumania the bones of a camel 
which he describes under the name of Camelus alutensis. Pomel describes Camelus 
thomasi from the Pleistocene of Algeria. Hence it seems to be highly probable, 
as was first pointed out by Nehring, that the one-humped and the two-humped 
camels were developed in different countries; and that while all descended from 
the ancestral form of the Siwalik Hills, one branch, reaching Western Asia and 
Eastern Europe, formed Camelus knoblochi and the Camelus alutensis, and probably 
also the domestic race of the camel found at Anau. This branch was two-humped; 
while the other branch, passing like the Indian buffalo (Bubalus paleindicus) 
into Africa, has formed the one-humped variety of Northern Africa and Arabia. 

That the camel was domesticated in very early times is proved by the repre- 
sentations and sculptures of the Assyrians and Persians. In the later Persian 
monuments of Persepolis and those of the Assyrians of Khorsabad and Nimrud, 
we frequently see one-humped dromedaries; but it is only on the black obelisk 
of Nimrud, which is inscribed with an account cf the campaigns of Shalmaneser 
II, King of Assyria from 860 B. c. to 825 B. c., that we see two-humped Bactrian 
camels, where several of them are represented under title of payment of tribute 
of the land of Musri. The land cf Musri, which belonged to King Asu of Gurzan, 
or Gilgani, was situated north of Lake Urmia, in the neighborhood of the Kara 
Dagh and Mount Ararat. Since our results seem to show that at the time of the 
oldest culture-strata of Anau the wild camel did not exist in this part of Turkestan, 
it is possible that the domesticated animal was imported with the goat from 
Bactriana or from the Iranian plateau. 


Ordo PERISSODACTYLA. 
EQUID A. 
Equus caballus Linneus. (See plate 77, figs. 1-9.) 

One of the animals of which we find the greatest quantity of well-preserved 
bones is a relative of the horse tribe. From the deepest layers, —24 feet, of the 
oldest period to the superficial remains of the latest habitations of the North 
Kurgan, we find great quantities of these bones in all the strata that have been 
opened. Therefore the equine animals must have been very abundant throughout 
the life of the kurgan. Notwithstanding this great quantity, it is not easy to 
form a picture of the equids to which these osseous remains belonged. We have 
only very few data concerning the bones of the Post-Tertiary and subfossil horses 
of China, Mongolia, and Central Asia,* which have been only slightly increased 
by Tscherskif for the Siberian horses. 

Nevertheless, despite the defective knowledge concerning the prehistoric 
horses, Central Asia is looked upon by many authors as the cradle of the European 
domestic horse, as well as that of the human race in general. 

Nehringtf has, it is true, proved that a domestic horse was formed out of the 
diluvial horse of Kurope on European ground, which took part in the creation 





*Gaudry, Journal de Zoologie, Gervais, 1872, t. 1, pp. 300-302; M. Wilckens, Nova Acta, Leop.-Carol. 
deutsch. Akad. d. Naturf., 1888, Bd. Lu, No. 5, p ; 


} Tscherski, Mémoires Acad. Imp. St.-Petersburg, VII série, tome XL, pp. 257-383, 1893. 
{ Nehring, Fossile Pferde deutschen Diluvial Ablagerungen,. Landwirtsch. Jahrbuch, Bd. x11, 1884. 


Fic, 


2a 
3. 
4. 
D5 
6. 





Right part of upper maxilla, Eq. caballus pum pellit. 
Anterior part of left branch of lower jaw of same. 
Metatarsus of horse of II period. 

Metatarsus of horse of Ib period. 

Metacarpus of wild (?) horse of Ia period. 
Metacarpus of horse of II period. 


EIGo de 


PLATE 77- 








Metacarpus of wild horse from Solutré. 
Phalanges I-III of horse of Ib period. 
Phalanges I-III of horse of II period. 
Phalanx II of camel. 

Vertebra cervicalis of camel, 

Phalanx I of camel. 





2 


PLATE 78. 





(Mus. Paris.) 


Fic, 5. Skull of a female wild goat from crete. 


Fic. 1. Basioccipital bone of Bos namadicus Falconer and 
Cautley. 6. Short-horned cattle. Skull of a specimen from the 
2. Remains of a long and large round horn-core of Bos kurgan of Bizino, near Tobolsk (western Siberia) 
taurus macroceros. (Mus. Paris). 
3. Proximal part of radius with ulna of Bos namadicus. 7. Remains of basal part of long and large round horn- 
core of Bos namadicus. 


4. Distal part of radius, , 
(Figs. 1-4 and 7 from period Ia.). 


y 


£ 
5 
- 
; 





. 


py 


- 
‘ 
He 


a 





PUA Eene. 


riche 


Bibs iy arte pence oe < 


i 
4 
4 





2 


Fic. 1. Egyptian dog, marble, Mus. Louvre, Paris. 
2. Egyptian long-horned cattle, Tomb of Manofer, 2600 Bb. c., Mus. Berlin. 





OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF ILUNOIS 


LIBRARY 


‘a+ 
n 


’ 


ORDO PERISSODACTYLA. 385 


of the heavy draft-horse of Europe; and now Kraemer* comes to the conclusion 
that the horses of classical Rome and Greece represent a cross between the heavy 
European horse and the Asiatic type. Notwithstanding the very plausible fact 
of the domestication of the European wild horse, however, it can not be contra- 
dicted that this wild horse itself could have come from Asia. 

In considering the horse of the Anau kurgan, it is primarily worthy of note 
(1) That the horse from the lowest to the uppermost layers is represented by a 
great quantity of bones, to an extent which in the lower layers is only equaled 
by those of the bovid; (2) that in these bones we can recognize only one variety 
of horse, which thus occurs in the lowest layers with wild animals only and in 
the higher strata with the other domesticated animals; (3) that the percentage 
of the bones of the horse, as compared with those of other domesticated animals, 
also increases in period Ib. ‘This last fact permits the conclusion that the horse 
came to the table of the inhabitants more often in the later than in the earliest 
period of the development of the kurgan civilization, from which we might next 
conclude that the horse was then easier to catch and had, therefore, become tamed 
or domesticated. 

It is not possible to assert with logical certainty the correctness of our con- 
clusion that we have here, at least in the upper strata, a domesticated horse, 
as we were able to do in the cases of the bovid and sheep through a study of the 
skeletal remains. I hold that no one is able to determine with certainty, from 
the study of a few bones of a fossil or a subfossil horse, whether the individual 
was wild or domesticated. 

There are wanting in the case of the horse precisely the criteria which we 
have in the bovids, where in consequence of stabling or of restriction of freedom 
of movement, the substantia compacta of the bones is thrown into the background 
in favor of the spongiosa. Again, we are not able to base a distinction between 
the domesticated and the wild animal on a change in the skull, as we do in the 
sheep. On the contrary, the mode of life of the horse, especially among inhabi- 
tants of the steppes, remains the same as in the wild condition. Harnessing, 
and the use of the organs as in the wild condition, insures the stability of the 
bodily form and of the skeleton; and the influence of the weight of the rider carried 
by the animal is not further perceptible in the bones. Consequently, in the horse 
of a primitive people, such as were the inhabitants of the Anau kurgan in the 
neolithic age, the quality of tameness is wholly psychological and is therefore 
not perceptible in an anatomical investigation. 

The determinable remains of the horse from the kurgan number about 1,250. 
There are, however, but 120 well-preserved pieces, which repay an exact measure- 
ment and study. Beginning with the examination of the cranial remains, we 
find the best among them to be a right upper-jaw with the whole dental row and 
half of the bone palate. A comparison of the measurements of these pieces with 
other horse skulls shows a good agreement with a subfossil skull from Western 





* Die Rassen der Pferdeinder klassischen Staaten nach litterarischen und bildlichen Quellen. Deutsche 
Landw. Tierzucht, No. 37, pp. 433-437. 


386 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


Siberia, from the Warwarinskischen ‘‘ Yourts,’”’ on the River Tobol, and with the 
djiggetai (Equus hemionus). We must, therefore, first settle the question whether 
these cranial remains really belong to a horse or to a half-ass, like the dyjiggetai, 
or to a kiang. 

Investigation into the relation of the teeth of the horse to those of the djiggetai 
and ass has been carried out most thoroughly by L. Riitimeyer,* R. Owen,T 
J. C. Forsyth Major,t A. Nehring,§ T. Frank,|| and M. Wilckens.{ 

In consequence of these studies the following distinctive characteristics 
between the Western and the Oriental horse groups and the asses are available. 


ORIENTAL HorsE Group (BROAD-FRONTED HORSES). 


The premolars of the upper and lower jaws have a larger or equally large 
transverse diameter of the grinding surface with the longitudinal diameter. The 
plications of the enamel pattern are here considerably smaller than in western 
horses and the interior pillars of the anterior island appear rounded. 


OccIDENTAL HorsE Group (NARROW-FRONTED HorsEs). 


The premolars are here more drawn out in the length; hence the depth of the 
grinding surface is greater than in the transverse diameter. The enamel plications 
of the islands are considerably more folded, and the ant-external horn of the pos- 
terior island surpasses the post-external horn of the anterior island, projecting 
further outward, even on the molars, on which in oriental horses they stand almost 
even. Inthe same way the stronger plication of the enamel margin on the internal 
lobe causes in the Occidental horse the striking bifurcation of the internal lobule 
and the stronger development of the spur** in the ant-oblique valley. 


ASSES AND HALF-ASSES. 


In the asses and half-asses the longitudinal diameter of the crown is still 
shorter in comparison with the transverse diameter than in the oriental horse, 
the enamel plications are less prominent, and the spur is wholly wanting in the 
ant-oblique valley. 

Tscherskif{ gives a method by which he says the relationship to one of the 
groups mentioned can be expressed in figures. This is the determination of the 
index of projection of the anterior lobule of the interior pillar. If we take the 
distance from the posterior margin of the crown to the next point of the bottom 

*Beitraege z. Kenntniss d. fossilen Pferde u. z. vergleich. Odontographie d. Huftiere ueberhaupt. 
Verh. Nat. Ges. Basel, 1863, p. 538. 

+ Description of the Cavern of Bruniquel. Phil. Trans. 1869, p. 517. 

t Beitraege z. Gesch. d. Fossilen Pferde. Schweiz. paleont. Gesell., 1877. 

§ Fossile Pferde aus deutsch. Diluvial Ablagerungen. Landw. Jahrbuecher, 1844. 


||Beitraege z. Rassenkunde unserer Pferde. Landw. Jahrb., 1875. 
{| Beitraege z. Kentniss des Pferdegebisses. Nova Acta, Leop.-Carol. deutsch. Akad. d. Naturf., 1888, 


P2587. 

**The ‘‘spur” of the German authors is the small enamel fold entering from the ant-oblique valley 
into the ant-oblique lobe (Owen’s terminology). 

TT Ob. ctt., p. 320. 


ORDO PERISSODACTYLA. 387 


Dimensions in millimeters of teeth of upper maxilla. 



























































ow 5 rh 
N ae cid Equus caballus. Se : . = oi 
eal 2 | S186 
cio Altai | Western E sf § S ea 
= , ic) 7 
pi —24| +15] after vir i pi Tar- | 98°39] g | g mee 
trench. sect cet Seay Tscher- | Tscher- | P#7: | & 4 oe tag 3 
cary skis, etski. Me Peps ie 
Premolar 2: | 
Mength of crown. ............ 38 ok eae eee Mae ‘Gerry 34-5 | 37 36.7 |35-7/36 | 40 
RIG GO (CLOW flies cieccis se aise e 26 26 ore 30 eit 21 22.5; 24 (|20.7/25 | 21 
Length of interior pillar from ! 
PROM ESCORDACK enets) oie ses strane 9 6 Bie eae 10.3 AAtse 8.5 8.5 8 7.5| 8 
Length, posterior end of crown 
tonext point of bottom of an- | 
terior-interior enamel creek..| 19 16 aerate 22 | Sea 18.5 | 20 19 |17.7|20 
Same measure to end of ante- 
rior lobus of interior pillar...| 21 17 Pate 23 Cer 19 21 1927 LOM I2Z0.5 
Premolar 3: | 
Length Of CROW. ceo ocs be bs 32 Boer eras SYlSh  ape5 27 29 26.5 |26 |28.5| 27 
DRIAL NE STOW So6°5 Hoven VS didn. 28 SS aah Mb Hee Behe a3 e275 2555 27 27-5 |25 '26.5| 23 
Length of interior pillar from | 
PLOMIUOLDACK:. een pee ttels siete 12  onstish Wpbewete Le See 12 a5 1285 10 10.5 |£0.7|11 
Length, posterior end of crown 
tonext point of bottom of an- 
terior-interior enamel creek..| 19 eel iis. peng 22.8 Reece L7 20 18.7 |18 |19.3 
Same measure to end of ante- 
rior lobus of interior pillar....| 23 Pi Beolit nytt 29 oa ene aM 21/28 ME2Or suet a n22 
Premolar 4: 
WenetiOr crown. s<.0..55 600s s 28 27 27 30 27 26 26003) |\e2 See 2 One 26.7 hae 
WidtirofsCrOwl. voce patie. ss. 2G) 26 25 33 2 2S eS eeZ Ons ake 7a loz 26 ae 
Length of interior pillar from 
pee ee Week OL, ale oe. I4 ji) 103 17 13 Line ey LIeSir2: [12 
Length, posterior end of crown 
tonext point of bottom of an- 
terior-interior enamel creek..| 18 7; 19 Pig ore 17 TS 5elel 7 D7 SLOMS 
Same measure to end of ante- ‘ 
rior lobus of interior pillar...) 23 22 22 2 Bina 21 21 2) 27, 343 
Molar 1: 
AETISTM OL CLOW ce, se oes 25 26 ees 26.3 2287 23 23 220 22e aie 
Wadth of Crow... 2.25. fal) 23 26 eetats 31 ZnS 23 24. Sls Gaeta 52S 
Length of interior pillar from 
AEOL CR COLOACK ites cis) se es << oe 12 13 era 15 1255 13 IO 1635 12 Arb73 
Length, posterior end of crown 
tonext point of bottom of an- 
terior-interior enamel creek..| 16 PRG taco 20.5 Ee ats iG fils 17 16 16 |17 
Same measure to end of ante- 
rior lobus of interior pillar....} 19 20 cates 2425 Mer ere OMe | wie TOMNTOR SIL ONS 
Molar 2: 
Weuctarorcrowl sees a... o. 27 ae 23 28 25 22 SN 2403 P22 ne 1295 52525 
Pe maRT OL CTOWN 5. 5. cat cy pae sé 24 25 24 30 ae 245° a 24 24 |25 (24.8 
Length of interior pillar from 
ROORUILO WACK fons ie aie hx be! 12 I4 10 7 14.5 13250 | 10-7 tI oe) Nes 
Length, posterior end of crown 
to next point of bottom of an- 
terior-interior enamel creek..| 16 15 16 2009 Sian 16.5 17 16 Fea) 
Same measure to end of ante- 
rior lobus of interior pillar... .| 20 19.5} 19 27 AE 20.5 | 19 IO, aL, pr 
Molar 3: 
ene thcot CeOwnl sygeirce secs: « 25 24 sae 32 nee 25 s5 ea 0 25 27.5124 
BEM OU CLOW 5 coc ods s,s x 21 20 eras 277(R) Mise eas Mie 21 Sous 
Length of interior pillar from 
RLOMELLO: PACK eit an cove sya +i peerene 10 HAE L7ia3 ants 13.8 II 13 T3253 
Length, posterior end of crown 
tonext point of bottom of an- 
terior-interior enamel creek..| .... 19 mare DAES ae, 17 2208) NaI See i2On 515 
Same measure to end of ante- 
rior lobus of interior pillar....| .... 22 ee 29.5 mae ZONA 2 565220024, S19 


























388 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


of the ant-oblique valley (Owen) =100, and call this =a, and call the distance 
from the same point on the crown to the end of the anterior pillar= 6, then 
a:100=6 ; index. 

By means of the data furnished by Frank and Wilckens, and this added method 
of Tscherski, we are able to compile the following illustrative table, based on the 
dimensions of the teeth of the upper jaw. 


Table of dental indices (in percentages). 














Premolar 2. Premolar 3. Premolar 4. Molar 1. Molar 2. Molar 3. 
| Index Index Index Index Index Index 
Provenience of |Index of pro-| Index| of pro-| Index) of pro- | Index | of pro-| Index of pro-| Index \of pro- 
dental series. length jection length) jection |length| jection | length) jection length jection length jection 
to of an-| to | of an-} to of an-|| to |of an-| to jofan-| to  |of an- 
width.) terior | width.| terior | width.) terior | width:| terior |width.| terior | width. | terior 
lobe. lobe. lobe. | lobe. lobe. lobe. 
= = | 
Anau,Komoroftr’h) 78.8 | 110.5 | 87.5 | 121.0 | 96.5 | 128 104 119 88.8 125 | (63.3 ieee 
Y= 24 TOCEY Sai 83,6 WetOGn aul ae ep OO a S26 | 100 125 100 127 | 84.0 115 
a= 1 5 TCCL salar eee, all eee mee 2-0. 1516 Sesh Ae avae?'| ges alse 
Vana Ruvenaevdss 7I-32>} 104.5, |TOO 12670 HLIO 122.2] 119 120 107 T2270) Shoe 120 
Western Siberia..| 60.9 | 105.8 | 94.4 | 123.5 |100 123 || 100 123 109 125 | 88.8 123 
Tarpan, after 
Tscherski, ae. o- 60.8 | 105.0 | 93.1 | 109. {100 113 104 ven 104 112 | 75.8 114 
Equus hemionus...| 57.5 | 107.2 | 96.2 | 103 104.4 | 112 108 119 93 12g \2537.0 120 
Equus przewalskit .| 50.2 5 oe | RCo SAS aca oe spies Ui isis aie rn rn Kis 
Equus onager.....| 69.8 | 100 93 115 96.4 | 115 | 100 119 96 123°], S255 132 












































It appears from the above table, as regards the length and width relation of 
the crown of the molars, which according to Frank and Wilckens is so characteris- 
tic, that in all the compared horse teeth the length exceeds the width in premolars 
2 and 3, and molars 3 and 2, and only equals the width in premolar 4 and molar 
1, or is shorter. Only on a skull from Yana River in Siberia do I find somewhat 
shorter teeth, in which the width is therefore relatively greater. This would 
be an indication that the horse of the Anau kurgan belonged to the Western race. 

If, now, we compare the relations under Tscherski’s method and their results, 
we find that the highest value for the projecting of the internal lobule belongs 
to the Anau horse, the Siberian horse, Equus onager and Equus hemionus. 

We have here in the especially demonstrative premolar 3=121, premolar 
4=128 and 129, molar 1=119 and 125, molar 2=125 and 127. 

Tscherski* calls the measurements belonging to the Tarpan “high,’”? which in 
the sense of Frank’s method would assign this animal to the Oriental horse group. 
He mentions, however, that in an Arabian horse these measurements are 115.7, 
116.6, 117.6, 121.2, and 118.3; and in a horse from Dongola 116.6, 122.7, 122.5, 
125, and 125, which correspond excellently with those of the Anau horse. T'scherski 
says further that the maximum figures for this projection are found in the broad- 
fronted races of fossils and recent Siberian horses. In the ass T’scherski fourd 
strong variations, and in the half-ass a series of proportions which also were similar 








* Op: "cit. p. 307. 


ORDO PERISSODACTYLA. 389 


to that of the’ Anau horse; thus premolar 3 =103.2, 116.6; premolar 4=112.5, 
121.7; molar 1=144.7, 120.4; molar 2=117.3, 129.6. 

However, if we now consider the teeth in connection with the appearance 
of their form, as well as that of their patterns and enamel plications, we shall 
recognize at once the extremely slight plication of the enamel layers. The inter- 
nal lobule of the anterior island is further distinctly drawn apart into two horns 
and flattened. The “spur’’ (of the German authors) occurs only on the premolars. 
This eliminates the possibility that we have here an animal belonging to the group 
of asses or half-asses. 

This is further evidenced by the lateral expansion of premolar 2, which in 
the Anau specimen is 78.8 and 83.9, in the Siberian horse 71.2,and but 60.9 in the 
asses and half-asses; especially in the djiggetai, Equus hemionus, which otherwise, 
on account of the size of the extremity bones, would here come very much into 
question, where it sinks to 50 to 57 per cent. This, according to Tscherski, is a 
very typical occurrence. 

In general the premolars of the half-asses show a narrow isthmus and a strongly 
widened capitulum, which does not happen at all in the Anau horse. We can, 
therefore, assume with certainty that we have here, not a half-ass or an ass, but 
a genuine horse. 

It remains now only for us to determine to what variety this horse belongs. 
The shape and conformation of the enameled crown, as well as the projection 
of the lobes, indicate a horse belonging to the Oriental group, but the form of the 
anterior island and the relations of length and breadth of the teeth point to the 
Occidental races. We have no frontal bone pieces, which would easily enlighten 
us on this point, and must, therefore, seek some other method. 

If we compare fig. 4 on Tscherski’s plate 11 with the molar series of Anau 
(plate 77, fig. 1, and text-fig. 491, a ande, p. 413), we shall see that beyond question 
a similar form of teeth is represented in both. The dental system of the fossil as 
well as of the known recent Siberian horses is peculiar in that, notwithstanding 
the characteristics of the skull, which place it in the group of the Oriental (medium- 
browed) horses, it shows a character which is peculiar to the heavy, narrow-browed 
West-European races, and in addition reaches the highest degree of the develop- 
ment of this type, especially as regards the considerable anterior projection of the 
internal lobule in the teeth of the upper jaw. If we should judge only by the form 
and the before-mentioned dimensional proportions of the teeth our Anau horse 
would belong to this Siberian group. 


THE LOWER JAw. 


The remains of lower jaws which we have from the kurgan, although four 
in number, consist of very fragmentary pieces, in only one of which are the branches 
sufficiently preserved to permit a determination of the length of the diastemas. 
From the dimensions, however, we can easily recognize that only a horse of medium 
or small size is indicated. What has been said with regard to the peculiarities 
of the teeth of the upper jaw applies fully to those of the lower jaw. 


390 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 








Subfossil |Subfossil 


East 
La Téne} West |a.7 Prze- Tur- 
North | ‘horse, | Siberian Siberian | walski | kestan 
; pea: from | Tartaria Hi horse, | horse, 
Upper jaw. nau, | Hosto- | horse, Paige after } after 


+12 f after _|ar rv 
mitz, after i epiears Tscher- | T'scher 


feet. Mus. | Tscher- ki ski. ski. 
Teplitz.| ski. ce 











Width of face at 
orbita maxillaris. 168 162 169 179 193.5 182 
Width of face at 
diastema _ be- 
tween premolar 





4and molarir... 118 5 4 TDS 9) 22400 gees 
Width of face be- | 
fore premolar 2. 58 64 59 69 | 68 


Width of face be- | 
tween molars I / 
ands ewe 119 | 108 118 r20° | 

Length of dental | 
series of upper 
jaw from premo- 




































































lar 2 to molar 3. 174 169 164 T7255 aes 167 | 159 183 165 165.5 
= SS = — = = | 
Equus 
/ lus. fo 
Equus caballus hemné-w lt Edie nae 
Lower jaw and dental series. — | ee sate onager 
Ljachow.| Ireland. Teree | kiang 
Width of lower jaw between alveoli | 
of premolariottec 14, eee ae 36 Pee 38.3 38 4I 44 40.5 41 
Length of diastemas2... aoe | go (?) 97 97 80 86 87 7308 
Smallest part before premolar 2....... ar | hens 47 39.5 39 44 37 44 
= (leapt, 225. yee ee 2 Ls Ae tae a3 30 30-5) 315 30 23 
Ereta lat Awidth,< 4, sck sy eaeurne 15 sae 15.5 16 15 | 16.5 £6 13 
Slength 2s 397 eae 27 | 26 30 28 27.3 | 28 28 27.5 
Premolar 3 ( Width: wi sooo hare eB co.5 20 18 | 16 T7573) ete 18 16.5 
Nlength 2.0 cae anes Sivek z Phe El eg) 26 he Bay 26.5 26 
Premolac 4.7 wid ieee a aN aah eR Rela Se 18 | 317-5 | 18 17 
(lengthier cere e 23 ed 2 HARES hee 24 25 
Mola width: oa eee 16> Wty) ERB. See 16 15 3 
, slength. cy wane saat oh 24 2738 2: 2555 sume 25 26.5 
Molar 2 (widtharn cece eet eee 14 17 15 16 16 15 15 
SCAPULA. 


The one almost perfectly preserved specimen of the scapula belongs also, 
as is shown by the comparative dimensions, to a horse of medium size. The slen- 
derness of the bones, a characteristic especially typical of the Anau horse, is here 
very perceptible. No further peculiarities are noticeable in the structure of the 


bones. 


HUMERUS. 


None of the bones permit a full measurement of the length of the humerus. 
Generally speaking, they were only distal pieces, the measurements of seven 
of which we have given in the table on p. 392. ‘The few measurements of width 


here given approach nearest to those of Equus przewalskii and Equus hemionus. 





ORDO PERISSODACTYLA. 391 


RADIUS. 


This bone is represented among the Anau finds in a somewhat better state 
of preservation than were those we have considered. ‘The relatively slight lateral 
expansion of this shows already that the Anau horse belongs to the thin-footed 
type, as will appear clearly from the consideration of the well-preserved meta- 
carpalia and metatarsalia. 

METACARPUS TERTIUS. 

One of the four measurable metacarpal remains from Anau is very well pre- 
served; and from this it is recognizable that the Anau horse belongs to the narrow- 
footed horses, since it possesses long and slender metacarpi. The index of width 
of the Anau animal gives the following results in comparison with other fossil 
and subfossil as well as recent horses. 


Hor the Onset al (EGWUs REMIONUS) acc ie goss Kole nev seve ss 11.8 
MOCLHNE ONAGCT A GWUS ONASET) 6 eo ow ccs ed div wee oS nee eulees os 12.0 
ROG AD IR OU AOI) Fe nate d oieye'l on. ds % vince vio oe Anema eee eRe) 
RO tates AMAaly NOESE see ste sestegee thous <caisi sisi oles oe © bicie oo ais, ecece ares ers jee 
Mor the: Lay Lene Horses series vais ainiets cea odie a ofe oa Stole cage elenei otal 13.0 
HOmtueCElertInerteZ Nl OLSGemereele siete. «6 cies. siasoiits (wiles sce's oitrn eke sa0¥ ai ms eke 13.9 
For the sinall German horse of Schlossberg... 0. vs eae sa nneess 14.0 
Por ine larre ochigssnery hOrse .. v6. six Gene oy case nea ba ween ss 15-3 
Beret ie Cs@t Mat CMiTVIAlOIGO ss sire ois snd oes Keele a aoe dienes « 17.5 


According to Tscherski, of the Siberian horses 10 per cent are narrow-footed, 
1.e., have an index of width of 15 or under 15; 45 per cent are medium-footed, 
4.e., have an index of 15 to 17; and 45 per cent are broad-footed, 7. e., have an 
index of 17 to 18.6. 

The Anau horse is, therefore, uncommonly narrow-footed, in which particular 
it stands near to the half-asses and asses and is only rivaled to a certain extent 
by the European La Tene horse. 


VERTEBRA. 


There are several pieces of neck and sacral vertebrae, of which, however, 
the measurements can give us no information of importance. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 






































. Diameter 
Greatest | Distal | Superior | Width at ee of 
length. | width. width. | collum, | “” ie a | articula- 
; tion. 
SCAPULA: 
North Kurgan, Anau: | 
PR TGNGOR AS cahictine sss s\c oi ato a 310 64 120 (?) s 48 ia 
FED Wrage Auch Saath © Sain MORENO cole ice sha aia 56 47 39 
ena, after Ischerski........... 343(?) | go 178 61 56 5I 
SADA cen weteeioteete etches cakes: isan 316 85.5 163 59 53 47 
Equus hemionus, Mus. Paris..... 250 a. 124 44 43 35 
Equus przewalskit, Mus. Bern.... 242 51 141 47 se 41 
NCHIOSSDEL See shee oso hence 282 Ag 147 64 45 ae 
urkestanthorse anaes. «emus ores Bot xe 162 60 48 
European diluvial horse: 
From Kesslerloch (Thayngen), 
BLLetOUIG Chase ae eee 320 go ons 5G 52 45 
Quedlinburg, after Nehring... a 99 ae He 58 51 








392 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters)—Continued. 

































































(renter Proxi- Proximal) Medi-| Median Distal Distal ae 
ae mal | diam- an diam- idth diam- intenor 
engt': \width.| eter. |width.| eter. |” } eters) ly chien | 
HUMERUS: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
NO: 1203515 Teetwnan ere 30 33 67 45 
INO: 327 2olecin. faa ae alae 65 43 
NO. 33) oO eee eee 63 40 
INo.<g4; RO CECE Kage ses <7 65 42 
No. 485; --26 feets sane 64 4! 
NO. 876)" 4-25 1e@ivee ce oe: 65 43 
INO. 896, -he5 feet eae occ 68 42 
European diluvial horse: 
Kesslerloch, after Hescheler* ee rei «ate ™ 193-85 77-78 
Westeregeln, after Nehring. .| .... ete me pact fe go 83 
Equus przewalskii, Mus. Bern . 230 74 80 28 35 67 45 
Tarpan, after Tscherski....... 264 96 2x 35 re 79 ee 48 
a Téne; Mus: Bern. .tas. . 23% ap 72 oe 29 60 62 aR 
Turkestan horse, after Nehring | 284 88 94 33 . 64 ? 
Equus hemionus, Mus. Bern...) 223 7O 7 27 34 67 
RADIUS: 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
No. 1108)! as feet scenes jo Gi be Be hars 
NOwtr 13) — 15 feet som ona 68 40 34 20 oe 
ING: TES fesse ke ee ones 65 38 2 22 WAR: 
NOT 206 aaceie ne ieee 65 36 ee 
INO. 323,220) fet pena ace poo eens ane 56 36 
NO: 1480, =23 teeta. tee see Biel «3 ocd ee 60 38 
Equus -hemionusian an een Gee 282 65 30 30 23 60 Ly) 
Equus przewalskit, Mus. Bern..| 276 70 a7 31 21 67 <7 
‘Tarpan, after Tscherski... o. 308 74 Lee 36.5 59 
Yana, atter [scherskinnn ace 308 83 ge 42 ae 75 
schlossbere sia.) ines ato: 229 i 58 36 ee = 
: {| 300 7 37 siete 29 3 38 
La Téne; Mus) Bermaae sie. heats 73 Pe 35 a 67 “e 
European diluvial horse: 
Kesslerloch, after Hescheler. . 79-82 
Westeregeln, after Nehring . . JI-92 
OssA METACARPI: 
Anau, =o 1 feet nant, verse ee 228 47 31 29 22 42 32 
cao Soy (rol Oke a en pom oe, ; Sea evar: Sale Ae 41 30 
PO TCCU Maya enone eee 31 24 44 32 
“oa teeta... perce een as ses atte 27 or 39 30 
“39 ehTeet och cee hee 220 44 30 2 23 40 28 
Subfossil Asiatic horse: 
Yana River, after Tscherski.| 226 51(?) 36 49-5 
AINE i.) cia ee eee | 208 48 34 48.5 
Recent Asiatic horses: 
Turkestan, after Nehring....| 202 46 33 47 
Kiang (Asinus kiang)}..... 229 46 28 42 
Kulan (Equus onager)+..... 232 44 28 41 
‘Lar pani, . oogenesis 197.7 | 49 Vegi Ba Neenah ATS 
Equus hemionus, Mus. Paris.) 212 48 30 25 20 40 25 
Subfossil European horses: 
Solutré, coll. Duerst ....... 207 47 28 34 25 45 31 
Santenay, Mus. Paris....... 44 30 ne ceeet. Hane 
Madelaine, same........... eae ae Tess d 46 Ces 
Lourdes saimes.eer sac tee stat see Hats pee ont 48 39 
Cotivres, Saiiewcn ee ot 214 54 35 34 29 50 38 
Curchy,.same. = eee 216 48 32 39 27 50 32 
Loltverné) sane... aaa 217 50 32 38 28 50 28 . 
Cindré (paleolithic)........ 219 60 37 42 29 50 32 - 
CavermeyFouventaar eee 217 52 32 40 27 50 32 : 
Santenay «4. eae aman meoee ene re a ee Pe int 54 44 ‘ 
Wiohontsclyten ite eee 220 50 33 aT ae) 47 35 e 
LeitmentzZa-00 ee eee 223 44 30 31 22 47 32 ~s 
pehlossherg oh; st twins tees 222 49 33 34 27 49 3 
schloesbere cis. orcs bees 201 47 29 28 20 47 32 
Lav Tenens apts deea nee 214 40 23 23 28 40 31 
Kesslerloch, after Hescheler*) .... eee a ae: hee 40-5 5) See a 








*A written communication from the author, received with many thanks, 





Diameter 
of 
exterior 
trochlea. 




















t+After Tscherski. 








Fic. 1. Sus cristatus (or vittatus), after Rolleston, Trans, Linn. Soc., Ser. 2, Zool., vol. 1, plate 42. 
2. Sus scrofa var. ferus, Germany, 


PLATE 80. 











PEATE $1. 





itish Museum, 


in Br 


bull skull, Museum Vienna. 


skull of European urus 
ian 


, 


Hungar 


Ss 


, 


janu 
s 


igen 
Bos taurus macrocero 


Bis Boi 


ws 


amt 


Bos pr 


1 
2 


Fic. 





PLATE 82. 








British Museum, 


skull in 


4 from Ladak, skull. 


as vigne 


2. Ov 


Fic. 1. Long-horned ox from Nepal, India 





2 
2 
z 
a 


UBRARY 
oF T 
UNIVERSITY OF 


ORDO PERISSODACTYLA. 393 
FEMUR. 


Of the femora not one shows itself sufficiently intact to permit an exact 
measurement. Only the width and thickness can be determined, these confirming 
the narrow-footed peculiarity of the Anau horse. 


TIBIA. 


Of the tibia, on the contrary, we have a perfect specimen, which permits of 
very exact measurement. This, too, shows that we have to do with a narrow- 
footed horse. The indices of width are: 


SNA AUT RO castes ateie vinla <ats'e ois ain bin ee ee OA ok ROS Dee 6 KEN See 25.8 
PMI CRUGHODETE HOUSM goles nitds since en owl ba eam eae wa ces vies IASG) 
EM Oe BOISE see ere oe Vt ordi s os foie eee ww ihe ad 9. < wae 6 oie < myese pe ie) 
TS QUST NEM IONUS pe lieicice Minti hernardreieie ciel keene oe alee melee sislee. cs 28.0 
Dilttviall MOrselOhrotberia smicisaielcie cis eve coh vte wile) sreteleier ac a, eve eve eit 30.0 
POM DE TOWEL IER aie a ceeaand in its Bini ad 9.9 Wah. 6, 8 aG5 Ala aes wy Oe Bw ws 5 33.0 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 
































3 
| oa a bay 3 ro : 
be = F = 2 =: | 2 ws 
d Sei Pee Sf ee 
WF = = a) : a = 
é 5 5 I = = Sinead 
3 ¥ % nt aS = 3 o 
y ° o ts 3 2 2 2 
1) a Ay a = A A H 
FEMUR: 
North Kurgan, Anau: | 
eet OCLC Mehta eee Meteecar tut Ms cee BR ones Pos swiss |e sew) Shee a OSE Naess 
Eta? OL CCLimmnt oes seoteie s'sareree » ser cts Rss Sha en angie aes 44 39 83 85(?) 
Equus przewalskit, Mus. Bern......... 286 87 67 39 29 80 102 
Equus hemionus, Mus. Bern........... 290 G0. ¥ svew <1) 250 30 80 93 
a anpaty al level SCMCTSK Im sterere)e ales fous e «:s 375 | 109 oat ses 50 a7 89 108 
Equus caballus, Kalmukian horse, after 
EUSCHERSE Le ei ate eins itac ie cine Sie oes 442 127 Paves 55 42 102 133 
Desig, etter PSenerskh cos. wince «ten 376 | 115 betes, aS 34 90 | «115 
| | 
TIBIA: | 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
Le TeOba te acres Pee ents eae eee 305 | 78 72 40 32 63 43 | 301 
INGMETOQO+1-1-22) feet rn cron mln cieins oe ba ccd Me he ase allegra olde axetil ues tases 58 41 ea. 
INO3, 5210-1 26 LECL era ricc ce ct teers een 83 75 44 BOe Wie al Sicee's eer 
Yana River, after Tscherski........... 328 room g eeccaey a” x tage Sera F415 Wes 206 
Kesslerloch, after Hescheler........... eer eWil eierye Wks. efexen Me zoee oe Vineet siccie 79 63 ante 
WanidonissavCirCls is oe eiciedsseistarle << s ae | cee Becta | eee § Lok eel Nee 70 48 “icv 
Equus przewalskit, Mus. Bern......... 294 86 65 34 22 635 Nieedo 277 
mer patuatter Ischerski. 5.2. sseeeet aes 340 89 are 38 ne? FOO (| Beat 307 
Equus hemionus, Mus. Paris.......-.-. 287 | 80 52 2 30 60 40 Abe 

















394 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters)—Continued. 





ad De Gh ee Pama saa!!! 


























. | Proxi- : : 
Great- | Proxi- -_ | Median] +. Distal 
est mal Pisa ae diam- ciate diam- 
| length.| width. eee) eter adn te ae 
eter. 
OssA METATARSI: 
North Kurgan, Anau: ; 
TO TECt A Weare ok coche aus ee 256 40 37 27 27 38 30 
4 26-TEEE hos sre Vineet tee fe eaten ees 264 nate arenes 25 25 38 31 
South: Kivir aria ete eke eae ee aries Bees ae eae Aiece 38 30 
=P 32 -T6ete cca enetn enemas ance er 43 30 27 21 41 30 
Subfossil Asiatic horse: 
Yana River, after Tscherski........ Ais | eye & Beats an ete 50.7 
Lena,.atter Pscherski.j0..as cen | 256 Fibs | Metensees 30.5 lene Stes 
PN UIDEL 2 oss Sieber oe ucueh teehectn ere tgs ate eee 254 44.5 aide 31 raae 46 
Ljachow Island, after Tscherski..... 251 47 ga 32 Balas ry 
Recent Asiatic horse: | 
Equus przewalskit, Mus. Bern...... 257 Atent eas 26 23 46 34 
Kulan (Equus onager).......... at) 27a AOA eee 26 eno 40 sine 
Kalinvicihorse ts eee sonia rere 299 54 oe 34 Was 54 Pe 
Equus hemionus, Mus. Bern........ 250. | 40 ay 25 22 35 30 
European subfossil horse: ) | 
Vind oissais ensierentaejeus eis ange ene 2A a er ay 42 31 26 46 34 
PHALANX I: 
North Kurgan, Anau: / 
NO.°20,. = 20 Peet), agin ee ttee fe re ae eS ioe 28 22 40 20 
No.i1205)— 15, felt: eee cee ee [7 85h 2 31 25 19 37 18 
Noy 1298 i= 15 (603 wee eee rk a ee © 31 25 21 35 18 
NO.: 1770; 2— PO Tectia Aerts 78 44 33 25 23 34 20 
No 1382)— 8 Teet.c ms ass bins ee 72 41 3I 25 21 a5 19 
NOs Tay 846 LEOU see ei ei ee 78 42 31 27 21 35 20 
INO 72 Ej Sts Slee Up tenc: am te ies 80 39 29 20 20 35 20 
Non o88isch 8255 feet oo atone 79) «42 eo 26 22 38 19 
INO} 07 I. S22 2.5 fOCE cteeiatnys averdades rice Plests 30 26 22 34 20 
No; i55i0 4-23) leet aan ieee ee 72. | 42 24 2: 22 22 18 
NO. 260, 8-26 feet es Soc ceaes pees PAGE 46 33 28 22 38 21 
No. 589, +30 feet (old individual). . 83 46 35 28 25 39 20 
NO. TOS, COmorormcrenen aq wee sae nae Ae. Nest 26 20 38 21 
No. 169, Komorof trench.......... | 724 40 3I 25 22 36 20 
Equus hemionus, Mus. Paris.........+-. 63. 4) =-43 33 23 20 33 17 
Tarpan, after Tschersk!: 
Anterlorcknce cei « aaaics eee ce oe ee (ASS See 34 45 23 
Rosteriong acco pois oc nee 75 52 neg Rie! 44550 23 
Vana’ geese io oie ehe ern he a ete eke 94-5} 64.5 ies 38.5 Ane 51 2755 
Equus przewalskit, Mus. Bern.......... aS A7e es 31 28 20 39 Zi 
European diluvial horse: | 
I‘rom Kesslerloch : | 
| A ites Studer eos 7 or one nee Ree te, eee he oe ap Wee one ape age 
After Heschelers. eee oe | 70-80 49-60 .... nee soe 1358S pone 
Afterss] elaritoas wn eet ae eae | 85-95) 56-64) .... Raced ovis’ |g 8=5 3 sie 
PHALANX LD: 
| North Kurgan, Anau: | 
No: TOTS +24 Teele Fer ee ee AQ Vino’. Wi 12h aa 19 | 38 19 
Now 183—=To-tectso. a sonore | 44 Ate ewer 34 18 a7 23 
NO.159'5,5= WO feete ae sae err 30 SOP mn ney 34 18 35 22 
No TO00 Uae Se eee eee 44 295 ie ees 37 20 41 23 
INGOs B22 rokyait ee cetera chee ee ean eee 2 (3S) ee7 33 17 34 21 
NGA TTSBr 45 0 oteen ocr ieee ior 39 45 27 39 20 40 22 
NO. 963 Ges cr eee oe Dee 40 42 oe 37 18 40 22 
NGi!67-7 ».ii..5 makes tare sens 40 40 = 40 19 38 22 
NO75'5:7 to dara ae Ooi ens eee 40 40 oF 34 19 35 22 
NO: GS 7h. ae eer ee eee a7 36 24 31 18 34 20 
Nov 20S sere ah oes oe eee AD Th 43 26 34 20 38 2 
EQuils hemtonus ae snne ake ee eee 35 us 24 30 15 31 20 
Equus preewalskit.... somes. ae ae eee fg 45 26 39 19 46 21 
European diluvial horse: 
From Kesslerloch: 
After‘ Studer. ewe eee 29-46, 49-59) .... eee .ee+ | 46-55 
After Heschelers te eee 41.5-48) 50-59) .... Bets weee | 46-54 
ATTEN ENT Oran. oe cnae eee 47-53| 56-60) .... suas Seise 1 AO—57 























ORDO PERISSODACTYLA, 




































































395 
Table of dimensions (in millimeters)—Continued, 
Posterior extremities. Anterior extremities. 
Phalanx III. Sia /8/] Be] ee) sail a/] ei] 84] o¢ 
e/ S/S) 5S) | e/ 3) e/ Ss) 23 
g/l) 2) se es) s/5) 8) eo] 8s 
eer elas Oe ale] el As} ods 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
SSN Get dere Sh ape ca ote ace iar Re ange Sane ASUS 7s 2G II T2O0 eee ee lees 
BLO L CO Dene coters hietope eve aan arnt. srarcnaiioyls xs 48 | 54 | 33 16 E3On eee lesteale es 
Seg GuULCG terme er een Aer see were cieae eee 487) 57 |, 33 15 VS5ri eres dre ler Me tei Pease 
Hae 3' LOCE mtevsvars sete crs ota cia’ n/t aalavelsieostateahy.« bo igo, | Raa A emer \teewe ar IAG cel fetal lacy 15 120 
ST eD Sa CO teeter tae crete tate, ola ieittahe aie caps : a 50" ROO 3S 18 140 
eRe hTeCta trai ctee Mrs are Sew Salers lone O'e are tere oe Meaolpe celles oh sep [gis || Giey |) 22 13 125 
Equus przewalskiz, Mus. Bern...............+ Se sd 17 rfl [Preaal| Ge eet 5) 110 
Equus hemionus, Mus. Paris..........0.+.=. eV falls Cercle 115 54 | 37 115 
European diluvial horse, after Nehring.... 85 | 58 oe go | 56 RA 
Width of Length of Length of 
Astragalus. distal interior exterior 
articulation. | trochlea. trochlea. 
North Kurgan, Anau: 
SHOUTS ope bon oscSnagdunodsDUduldOmue Og HOO oe 44 52 48 
STOEL CCL eae metepercMeienar actc lccetelehowelie cre a.ersiels io Goce. sehe: sels. dls sa 4I Re! 49 
ete 2 OL CCL Meee Tae Aes ig AORN Met sievare ore ev anevers toi sl vee revat ore. Wotan 48 59 54 
Ere SL COUN renet teers coctercieichs eisis evel ‘sicusl <"se\'sl Ba 0 4s 15.) ¢: 318 31a 44 ze 48 
PE OLLCe CMR ene Pert iteccre iat sarees: cre fecctarel are Bake @ deed cls Wak 48 55 51 
So ee 47 56 49 
Equus przewalskit, Mus. Bern...... 51 55 51 
European diluvial horses: 
Atterm Pescheler pmesslerloch’.© 5 acces sess Sees an emes = 51-54 74-78 
ATTerNelurinmeWw eStererelnc.. creche vis, s/eie\s.ne aie << ete es 57-60 83-84 
ATIGONISSA els ONlAll HOTSES aaaisericis slonssara erore eile: Ahe.elaleleya seine 50-59 60-63 
ASTRAGALUS, 
In all we have seven well-preserved astragali, three right and four left. Their 


size corresponds throughout to those of the horses already mentioned. 

As is known, Forsyth Major points out that in the fossil horse the length 
of a segment of the inner end of the navicular surface of the astragalus, counted 
from its intersection by an imaginary line representing the continuation of the 
outer surface of the inner condylus, is considerably shorter than in recent horses, 
and he illustrates this in a table, from which we have extracted some points giving 
the relation of the length of the inner segment of the navicular surface referred 


to its full length, which is taken as roo. 


Relation of length of inner segment of navicular surface of astragalus to tts full length 
(expressed in percentages). 








Minimum, Mean. Maximum. 
ELE POLUON deeteeste ete ola iat sale ote ele lia © ele le eis 2062 29.2 20n2 
EEQUUSISLENONTS arta ect es ae ogee ects; 24.7 32.5 B58 
Siberian horses, Yana River............ 270) 2.0 Bano 
Roman horses, from Vindonissa......... 30:42 Pe 3404 
TTOTSES*OLOLt Carita rie cteeee eer | Choate a 34.5 
Horses trot: Cardamones 4-6 ies os Belo! 34.6 35-4 
Fi guus- covauus TECENt I. .ic eae «002 0 00's 36.0 37.8 40.4 




















396 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


The Anau horses range themselves quite in the beginning of this table, with 
minimum of 22.0, mean of 26.0, and maximum of 35.0, and show themselves, 
therefore, to stand nearest to Equus stenonis, here again inclining to the half-asses 
and asses. According to Tscherski, however, Equus stenonts is nothing else than 
the Siberian fossil horse which he describes. 


METATARSUS TERTIUS. 


Of metatarsal bones we have two completely preserved specimens, from 
which we can determine easily the index of width, which further confirms, in the 
most striking manner, the thin-footed character of the Anau horse. 


Index to width. 


E QUats OND LOT Tae Sivats cee eee eet a ee te et ee Spee aye She soe 9.0 
Anat horse; cultttre- 1). —2 rteetreces mace. ves wares rete terres 9.5 
EeqQuas Nemronus io vic 5 save or esses aca Pa ia Ds woe are! alae. sn a outera pte neta are 10.0 
Equus preéwolskit. coos: «obs wake a cyesce sain de ho ee ee 10.1 
Small German bronze-age horse of Spandau................... 10.6 
Anau horse: culture: Jo) 47'S feetee oa] wets so Sects oie ee eee terns 10.5 
Small German’ hotse of the: Schlossberg annie aie crate tee 11.9 
Large Schlossberehors@ai4 nec: ap ce aah oe ee eee 12.0 
Siberian fossil"horseiof the Yana Rivers3h nue cue seas 1303 
German diluvial horse of Westeregeln.......0....0-se00e+sn 0 13.9 


This table is particularly instructive, since in it so great a variation is shown 
between two metatarsi of the Anau horse that the Spandau horse of the bronze 
age is seen to be still more narrow-footed than the Anau horse I. 


PHALANGES. 


The phalanges also confirm what has been said, since their measurements 
agree only with the smallest breeds and species of horses. The larger of these 
phalanges from culture I, No. 20, — 20 feet, and from No. 1205, —15 feet, as well 
as No. 168 from the Komorof trench, must be considered as the phalanges of the 
posterior extremities, and the others as belonging to the anterior extremities. 


ON THE TYPE AND THE RELATIONS OF THE HORSES FROM ANAU, 


We have now come to the close of our discussion of the remains of the horse 
of Anau, and it remains only to give a short recapitulation of the results and to 
draw some inferences. 

In order to deal clearly with this subject, however, we must first try to deter- 
mine arithmetically the approximate size of this horse in the manner formerly 
used by me,* the results of which I give below: 


Height of withers (in centimeters). 


Calculated ‘from: the/scapilav., ae tere aie ee ren 132-7 
Calctillated from the tibia i. gos mane oe ne eee 132.9 
Calculated from the métacarpus.’....cys%') tee es we 146.5 
Calculated from the métatarstigy<. 29. cis. sso we eae oe 136.4 
Mean height, 02... 502005 tet oe ea ee 137 





*Die Tierwelt der Ansiedelungen an Schlossberge zu Burg an der Spree, pp. 18, 276, 277. 


PEANERS3: 


34 Fe ear, oe 





Fic. 1. Bos namadicus Falconer. ‘The Assyrian king Ashur-nasirapal hunting the Asiatic wild bull, B. c. 885-860, Nimrud Gallery, British Museum. 
2. Ovts artes palustris, horn-cores and skull from the turbaries of Walthamstow (England). 
3. Babylonian cylinder-seal, with representation of an ox of the long-horned breed. 





UohaitY | 
OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF {LLUNOIS 


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ARIE SPOTS TT! ” z e oe as GPOSR a PRR ESN 


Gazella subgutturosa. Flock of Gazelles. Nineveh, Palace of Ashur-bani-pal, B. C. 686-62 








ORDO PERISSODACTYLA. 397 


If we compare these heights of the withers with those of some known sub- 
fossil and fossil horses, we obtain the following picture: 


Diluvial horse: cm. 
iWesterevelnzatcecs Nehring get erin cia iki cite «i 155 
HERA en  RIreM CTI OMe ne Ge aude dite ac cies ee 151 
SibetiawVanaeRivers diterelscherskiree- oir acre din ce ee 146 
SolutrewaltersGaillardita andes et ie ihe Tenet once oak 125 

Subfossil horse: 

Sapetr (Pron re ARC) es ek et he Pie easels e ae ev Ws see heme 149 
ICMUEMISIET FN SCE ADE rian eerie ity oieisie sacle. 4a. <.se oon, wbx <2 146 
Petersinseli(bronzejace) iin nace vate cies lala & ee siete se: 142 
Peg LENS Cie ASO) erate tania a sah ls Be os, oie er le vie a 141 
ANVerier (Dipnte APC). H. es. os. ocho. oo. eat eee kes 138 
PATIATIM( TE OMEMIC a 2) preg ments rene ticret erodes alah sins Alvev atts Aumreaheaiks 137 
Aielkanals(Drouze-1tOn Age)ie.. et van ae rie sass oo 58 seal 136 
Sehlosshery Megmes, oe vec tee eer eran eA ie ope ek CIN dey eo eanees 118 


The horse of Anau belongs, therefore, to the smallest of the prehistoric domestic 
horses and also, as we have already seen, to the most narrow-footed. It shows 
in this respect a most remarkable agreement with the so-called Helveto-Gallic 
horses, or the iron-age horses of Europe. 

We can now summarize the characteristics of the Anau horse in the following 
terms: While its dental system shows certain characters, leaning closely to those 
of the fossil Siberian horse—characters which according to certain authors belong 
only to the group of Occidental horses—it shows, on the other hand, characters 
which belong to the purely Oriental horse group. In the characteristics of the 
extremities, also, in common with a small percentage of the fossil Siberian horses, 
it ranges itself wholly on the side of the group distinguished as Oriental horses. 

We can, therefore, consider the Anau domestic horse as an altogether Oriental 
horse resembling the Siberian equine only in the structure of the teeth. The Anau 
horse is, therefore, the oldest domestic Oriental horse. I designate it, in dis- 
tinction from other forms of subfossil horses, by the race or subspecies name 
Equus caballus pumpellii mihi. It is, however, difficult to say to what extent this 
subfossil horse resembles the equine from Maragha which Wilckensj from the 
data of a few incisors and molars, has named “Equus fossilis persicus.”’ The 
material at Wilckens’s disposition does not suffice for a careful comparison. Fur- 
ther, such careful manifold enamel plications as recur in Equus fossilis persicus 
are not observable on the 60 or more molars examined by me in Equus caballus 
pumpellit. 

' As has already been stated by Tscherski (p. 356), the study of a large number 
of teeth of similar Siberian horses shows a wide range of variation in respect to 
enamel plications, the extremest types seeming to stand so far apart that, if one 
were to use only the enamel plications as a basis, two or three different species 
might be established. 

Is it not possible that Wilckens has given too little value to the variation 
in Hipparion, which is chiefly represented in his material? I can, therefore, regard 
the existence of Equus fossilis persicus Wilckens only as very problematical! As 





* Written communication. 
Op. cit., p. 280. 


398 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


regards Equus przewalskii, which it has been recently attempted to raise abso- 
lutely to the position of ancestor of the Occidental and Oriental horses,* con- 
sidering it to be a survival of Equus caballus germanicus Nehring, we must remark 
that according to Matschie} there are three types or subspecies of the Przewalski 
horse which differ in size and form according to locality and environment. Among 
them Equus hagenbeckii Matschie appears to stand nearest to the Anau horse. 
The pieces measured by me from Equus przewalskii, which, however, did not 
belong to this subspecies, do not agree as well with the Anau horse as with the 
more stout-boned Siberian horses. In the construction of the teeth Equus prze- 
walskii appears rather to be a survival of the Siberian diluvial horse and to repre- 
sent the small horse of the Germans as we meet it in Equus caballus nehringi, but we 
can not decide this with certainty and so long as we can depend merely upon the 
existing materials we can only stand by the expression of the possibilities we 
have mentioned. It is to be hoped that later excavations by Professor Pumpelly 
will produce more complete material and more far-reaching conclusions. 

Meanwhile, I may express my opinion as to the cause of the characteristic 
differences between the Occidental horse and the Oriental breed, although, as has 
been said above, both are assumed to be derived from the same ancestral form. 
It is only a supposition, a hypothesis, which has presented itself to me during 
the thorough study of the remains already described. 

As is well known, Equus przewalskiv still roams in the Djungarian Gobi and 
the neighboring tracts of the Tian Shan region. But that part especially of the 
Gobi—near the lakes—where alone, according to Przewalski, Equus przewalski 
lives, has the character of a steppe with boundless pastures of reed-grasses and 
salt plants. Still more exuberant is the plant growth of the Tian Shan districts. 

In strong contrast with these stands the Kara Kum—the Black Sands—the 
most forbidding desert of the whole world. Sand, for the most part shifting 
dunes, covers the immense surface; only in those places where the sand is to a 
certain extent arrested in its movement is it possible for the saxaul (Haloxylon 
ammodendron) and some desert grasses to grow and furnish a very scant nourish- 
ment to the few animals of the desert. 

It was, as now, the “flying sand’’ that forced animals as well as man onto the 
shrinking oases, and caused concentration of family groups to battle against this 
enemy, with the aid, first of natural, and later of regulated irrigation. The horse, 
which, like the wild ox, still roamed wild in the Kara Kum when the North Kur- 
gan was founded at Anau, was no longer an animal of the grassy steppes, but had 
become a denizen of the desert. 

The Kara Kum, as a desert, could never have nourished the horse without 
the aid of man—man who raised the necessary fodder in his oases along the foot 
of the Kopet Dagh. But it does not follow that the horse did not remain an animal 





*Th. Studer, Die Knochenreste aus d. Hoehle z. Kesslerloch bei Thayngen. Denksch. d. Schweizer 
Naturf. Gesell., Bd. xxix, 1904.—H. Kraemer, Zur Aelteste Geschichte d. Pferde. Jahrb. Pflanzen u. 
Tierziichtung, von Miiller, 1905. 

+P. Matschie, Giebt es in Mittelasien mehrere Arten von echten Wildpferden? Naturw. Wochensch., 
Bd. 18, pp. 581-583, 1903. 


TORTOISE. 399 


of the desert, as is to-day the horse of the Arabs and Berbers. The excellent 
observations of H. Kraemer* on the strength of the metacarpalia in the horse, 
taken together with well-known observations of the peculiar build of all animals 
of the desert, enable us to understand how there could occur a differentiation 
into slender-footed, slender-limbed, so-called Oriental horses on the one hand, 
and thick-footed, heavy, Occidental horses on the other hand. The differences 
in physiographic conditions were, in my opinion, the cause of the formation of 
both of the main groups of our horses. 

The wild ancestral form was the same for both; it was the Diluvial horse 
of the ancient world, which roamed as far as the loess steppes and tundra plains 
extended; and which, surviving in separate groups the disappearance of the 
tundras, was transformed, according to the newly developing regional physio- 
graphic influences, into the desert-type (Equus caballus pumpellir), the steppe- 
type (Equus caballus germanicus seu robustus), and the forest-type (Equus caballus 
nehringt). 

The same history is true of most of the domestic animals; and I do not 
hesitate to express the opinion that the change to slenderness in the hollow bones 
of the ox, together with the diminution of bodily size, as well as a general stunting 
(hindered development) in an early youthful stage of the normal form, developed 
gradually under the same influences, for it is evident that under conditions of 
insufficient food, early pairing and inbreeding—as to-day in Turkestan—the cattle 
were used for riding and driving, but not for milk and fattening. 


TORTOISE. 
Testudo horsfieldii Gray. 

Remains of the tortoise, consisting of dorsal and ventral plates, occur among 
the bones collected in Komorof's trench. They are, therefore, of an indeter- 
minable age, but the form of these well-preserved plate bones permits an exact 
determination of the species, Testudo horsfieldii Gray. 








* Zur Frage der Knochenstaerke der Pferde. Deutsch. landw. Tierzucht, 1904, Nos. 28 and 31. 


oi 





oo 
° 


Present distribution 


Distribution in prehistoric 
and early historic times 


Localities where are found bones 
of the Asiatic Urus ,the ancestor 
of the longhorned cattle 


° ° ° 


30 40 50 








PLATE 85. 











Present distribution 








Distribution in prehistoric 
and early historic times 


Y Localities where are found bones 
YY of the Asiatic Urus ,the ancestor 
4 of the longhorned cattle 
g 


30° 40° 50° 60 70° 80° 90° 100° 











° ° 
nae) 120 130° 140° 


Map Showing Prehistoric and Recent Distribution of Bos taurus macroceros Duerst. 











22 2 0%,°,°| Present distribution 
prior Distribution in prehistoric 
and early historic times 
ZZ Localities where the wild ancestor of 
GZ Ovis vignei arcal still lives 


30° 40° 50- 





Map Sho 


PLATE 86. - 


Flo 
jo} 
< 


in 


~~ 


\ 


Xo) 


LA 


Bite iexe, 
ore, 


nee ae | 














g) 
OQ 
rh, 
RQ 
> 
b 
A 
f 
a 
080800, 
Cae oe 
f ° ©,°% oo 
7? 0% 20 °° 
COMO Ge ° 0.9 50.0) 
ae 
COC a ROR > AORN 
: 
CE eo it 
J oer ° . 
Cae [cists Se et ee wa 
see . 2 wheat 9° 
Peees CE CRyCl Sey gs kee Y 
Seas. So 
CID) OS SECS ets 
omer eer el nee 
SVC NOT 
CO ss Duigiic f 
. ee . . 
Lary Se eng echin eteT a & 
ane ota syere ee oe 
ee ig 9 ley) Sheree eed Olam Die 
ec eaeyhe rte Bieni@ei Se e “fone we 
eu eg hO) 6, Ye Oe Sg So *. A re 
Staleicg: ie) on Pe eee . Oe at Ene) we 
\e, ° « l, Lae Yay see 
. . e 
erates = Se ES) eg 
vor) 


palustris Rutimeyer (Turbary Sheep). 


nd Present Distribution of Ovis aries 


Map Showing Prehistoric a 





CHAPTER XIX. 


THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY AND THE RACES OF 
DOMESTIC HORSES. 





(Plates 87-91.) 


Having, in chapter xvur, endeavored to prove that the equid of the North 
Kurgan of Anau is a horse and not an ass, and to show its relation to other Asiatic 
Equide, and further to picture the changes it underwent during the life of the 
civilizations of that kurgan, I shall now consider the relation in which the Anau 
horse (Equus caballus pumpellii mihi) stands to the subfossil horse and to some 
historical domestic breeds, as well as to the Equus przewalskii Polyakoff. 

As is commonly known, the domestic horses are generally classed in two 
groups: the Oriental and the Occidental. Frank* calls the first of these groups 
also Equus parvus, and the second Equus robustus, and discusses at some length 
the points of difference between the two types. In this connection I will state 
briefly some points which have not been sufficiently touched upon in the previous 
chapter. 

In the Oriental horse, especially in the Arabian, the brain-skull is, relatively, 
very strongly developed; the face less so. These horses are called broad-headed, 
because the width of the forehead is large in comparison with the length of the 
skull. We have already spoken of the teeth; regarding these we may here refer 
especially to the anterior and posterior crescentic islands (Owen’s terminology), 
in which the enamel-margin is not so wavy; the internal lobe is placed just in the 
middle of the grinding surface, and its division into two is not very clearly marked. 
The hollow bones are remarkable for their graceful shape and solid, hard texture; 
the metacarpal bones are relatively narrow. In many points, therefore, this 
group of horses resembles the ass. 

On the other hand, these same points distinguish the Occidental from the 
Oriental horse. In the Occidental horse the facial part of the skull predominates 
at the expense of the brain-skull, the skull appears long and narrow, the forehead 
is narrower, the rim of the eye-socket is but slightly prominent. The enamel- 
margin of the crescentic islands is very wavy, and the internal lobule is divided 
into two very distinct horns and flattened. The bones of the extremities are 
heavy and massive, while their texture is less dense and hard than in the Oriental 
horse. ‘The tarsal bones are generally broader than in the latter group. Again, 
Sanson,t applying Broca’s anthropological method, has proposed another classi- 
fication of horses based on dolichocephaly and brachycephaly, dividing them into 
four dolichocephalic and four brachycephalic races; but it has not been possible 
to maintain this division in practice, as it is too schematic. We can not consider 
here other attempts at classification. 





* Frank, Ein Beitrag z. Rassenkunde unserer Pferde. (Vortrag) Landw. Jahrbticher, Iv, 1875, pp. 33-52. 
A. Sanson, Nouvelle détermination des espéces chevalines du genre Equus. Comptes Rendus de 
l’Académie d. Sciences, t. LXIxX, pp. 1204-1207. 
401 


402 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


What concerns us before all else is the question: In what relation does the 
horse of Anau stand to the domestic horses of to-day, and espectally to their direct 
ancestors, the subfosstl horses? After the foregoing special investigation and the 
subsequent general comparisons, I have no hesitation in asserting that we must 
see in the horse of Anau the first representative of the Orvental race of horses. 


FOSSIL AND SUBFOSSIL HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. * 


I will not attempt here to trace the connection of the Equide of the later and 
middle Tertiary period, although since the wonderful results of Henry F. Osborn 
(in the American Tertiary) this would be a pleasant and profitable subject; nor 
can I here institute a comparison with the other diluvial Equide—the Equus 
stenoni Cocchi, Equus quaggoides F. Major, Equus speleus Owen, Equus mauri- 
tanicus Pomel, ete. In this place I will attempt only to establish the relationship 
of the horse of Anau, especially to the remains of those horses which, with more 
or less right, have been regarded as the ancestors of our domestic horse, and whose 
direct conversion to the domestic state has been assumed to be certain. We will 
here notice the principal types in question. 


THE HORSE OF THE QUATERNARY PERIOD OF EUROPE. 


During the glacial period the forested area became greatly restricted, grasses, 
herbaceous plants, shrubs, succeeded trees as the predominant vegetation. These 
steppe-like regions became the home of numerous herds of wild horses, together 
with scirtetes, jerboas (alactaga), spermophili, bobacs, lagomys, arvicole, and 
other characteristic inhabitants of the loess steppes of to-day beyond the Volga.t 

The horse that then lived in the northeastern part of Central Europe was, 
as shown by the remains found at Remagen, Westeregeln, and in other places, 
a medium-sized, stocky animal with thick bones and a large head. It may, there- 
fore, from this bodily shape be taken to have ranked very near the present Equus 
przewalskit, which according to Grum-Grshimailo has a withers-height of 153 centi- 
meters.{ In the southern part of this region there seems to have lived besides 
this horse, either at the same time or somewhat later, a smaller form of the same 
variety. ‘This is not surprising when we consider that Matschie recognizes a larger 
and smaller variety of the Przewalski horse. By this I do not mean the form of 
Equus caballus fossilis, which Woldrich has called “minor’’ and which Nehring, 
objecting, held should rather be called ‘‘ major,’’ since the horse of Nussdorf, with 
its 555 mm. basal length of skull, must be counted among the largest horses. 

No; it was the horse of Solutré, Cindré, and other points in France, that 
represents the small, broad-boned European wild horse. We do not know whether 
the paleolithic horse of Solutré was domesticated, as Toussaint asserts. Nehring 
also assumes that the horse was already domesticated in the glacial period, and I, 











*Dr. Duerst designates as ‘‘fossil” all occurrences of paleolithic age or earlier, and as ‘‘subfossil’’ 
all of later age.—R. P. 

tA. Nehring Fossile Pferde aus deutschen Diluvialablagerungen, etc. Landw. Jahrbiicher, x11, 
1884, p. 148. 

{Compare p. 426. 


FOSSIL AND SUBFOSSIL HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 403 


too, influenced by many reasons, have expressed my belief in the probability of 
a very early domestication of the horse, probably in the paleolithic age of Europe. 

But this has here no bearing. ‘The essential fact is, and remains, that the horse 
of Solutré—which may have been the same that was hunted and pictured by the 
cave-dwellers of Dordogne—was smaller than the steppe horse of Central Europe, 
and had a withers-height of about 125 cm. if one may judge from the skeleton 
of a Solutré horse preserved in Lyons. ‘To what is the smallness of this horse due? 
In giving my conclusions I shall attempt an explanation; here I will remark 
only that the climatic and physiographic conditions under which the Solutré 
horse of the paleolithic age lived were probably essentially different from those 
surrounding the steppe horses of the northern lowlands and coastal lands of Europe. 


THE HORSE OF PREHISTORIC (LATER QUATERNARY) TIMES. 


(a) The Neolithic Age.—Remains of horses of the neolithic age are rare; never- 
theless, finds from Wohontsch on the Biela, Leitmeritz, Fouvent, and Louverné 
are evidence that at least in Bohemia and Gaul the horse had not disappeared in 
neolithic time. 

More complete remains of the horse than merely a few bones of the extremities 
seem to have been found at Schussenried, of which Fraas* has unfortunately given 
a very imperfect account, and it was not possible to determine its geologic age. 
Here belong, however, still other finds: Boucher de Perthes found in 1833 at the 
bottom of a turbary in the Department of the Somme in France, 5 to 6 meters 
below the water-level, two skulls of horses associated with late neolithic pottery 
and with flint implements. These were deposited in the Museum in Paris; and 
one of the skulls was later examined by Sanson himself and determined as “ Asinus 
africanus or the African ass.” 

Sanson remarks concerning it on page 133, t. mI, of his ‘‘Zootechnie’’: ‘‘ En le 
donnant comme étant celui d’un cheval, Boucher de Perthes s’était done trompé, 
erreur bien excusable d’ailleurs, de la part d’un trés-habile archéologue tout 
a fait étranger 4 l’anatomie zoologique. Ce qu’importe, c’est que la présence 
de ce crane dans le nord des Gaules, a 1’époque de la pierre polie, atteste que sa 
race y avait été amenée dés lors par des migrations de population humaine.”’ 

Sanson considered this an isolated case, but a no less eminent authority than 
Ludwig Riitimeyer described an equid skull from a pile-dwelling at Auvernier 
on Lake Bienne, which he ascribed to an ass.f 

Since, through the kindness of Professor E. Ray Lancaster and Oldfield 
Thomas, I was able to compare this African ass, so early an inhabitant of Europe, 
with its contemporary from the ruins of Abadieh near Kenia in Egypt, dating 
according to Professor Flinders Petrie from the IV dynasty, I came to doubt the 
correctness of the determination of the two authorities—Rtitimeyer and Sanson. 

Riitimeyer (p. 53), as well as Sanson, was led to its determination as Equus 
asinus, or the half-ass, on account of the small absolute size of the skull. But 
the greater extent of the diastema or toothless ridge of the jaws than is usual 








*O. Fraas, Beitrage zur Kulturgeschichte, etc. Arch. f. Anthrop., v, 1872. 
}Riitimeyer. Schadel von Esel u. von Rind aus den Pfahlbauten von Auvernier u. Sutz Pfahlbauten. 
vi. Bericht. Mitt. d. antiq. Gesellsch. Ziirich, Bd. xrx, pp. 50-56, 1876. 


404 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


among asses distinguishes this animal from those. The transverse diameter 
of the skull and the form of the nasal bones conditioned thereby are like those 
in the horse, as is also the eye-socket. The perfectly preserved teeth show that 
the length of the upper jaw is 34 per cent of the length of the skull. Riitimeyer 
finds for the horse, elsewhere, 32 to 35.6; for the ass 35 to 38.5 per cent. Thus 
it should be a horse. Also, the relation of the premolar row of the lower jaw 
to the dental row, which in the horse is 51 to 53 per cent and 49 in the ass, is 52 
per cent in the skull from the lake-dwelling, thus again as in the horse. Only 
the occiput, says Riitimeyer, looks like that of an ass. And he closes his obser- 
vations: “‘ Notwithstanding all the uncertainties which seem to attach to these 
measurements, not only on the teeth but on the skull as well, certainly derived 
from nature, there remains in my mind no doubt that the skull from the lake 
belonged to an ass.”’ 

The kindness of Doctor Lehmann, Director of the Swiss Landesmuseum in 
Zurich, enabled me to make a direct comparison of the skull from Auvernier with 
the mummified skull from Abadieh and with the skulls from the Somme which 
I studied in the Museum of Natural History in Paris. 

During this investigation there arose again the question which I had asked 
inyself before, during the study of the craniology of the ruminants: What are 
the really decisive criteria of species, and what the incidental characteristics brought 
into existence by causes acting during individual life? At last I came to the reali- 
zation that a conclusive method of discrimination did not exist; that all those 
in use might be said to be wholly empirical, in part, indeed, dependent on the 
personal perception and feeling of the individual student, and therefore not scien- 
tifically established. Nor have I succeeded—through lack of material, fresh heads 
and numerous skulls of asses—in adding much that is new; but I believe that I 
have thrown some light upon the causality of some of these relations, and have 
tried to incite to a more scientific treatment of the question. 


CRANIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ASS AND THE HORSE. 


The older authors, as De Blainville in his Ostéographie, and Cuvier, do not 
supply what is really needful for the comparison in question. [L. Rutitimeyer 
has opened the way here, too, as in many other branches of paleontology. His 
‘“Beitrage zur Kenntniss der fossilen Pferde,”’ etc.,* was the first work worthy 
of note on the fossil remains of the genus Equus, but he did not treat of the differ- 
ences between the horse and ass till in his second treatise ‘‘The Horses of the 
Quarternary epoch’’t in the same year as the studies of Frank mentioned above. 
In the meantime this relation had been discussed by R. Owen in his “ Description 
of the Cavern of Bruniquel and its Contents,’’{ in which are beautiful plates 
representing the teeth characteristics of the horse and ass. 





*Riitimeyer, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der fossilen Pferde u. zur vergleichenden Odontographie der 
Huftiere ueberhaupt. Verh. Naturf. Gesellsch., Basel, Bd. 111, 4, 1863. 

{Riitimeyer, Weitere Beitrage z. Beurtheilung d. Pferde d. Quaternar Epoche. Abhandl. d. Schweiz. 
paleontol. Gesellsch., 1, 1875. 

t Owen, Philosoph. Transactions, vol. 159, 1869, pp. 517-557. 


CRANIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ASS AND THE HORSE. 405 


Later J. C. Forsyth Major,* Mme. Pavlow,t Nehring,t Kowalewski,§ and 
Woldrich|| touched more or less at length upon the relation of the skulls of the 
ass and horse. Still later some of the French investigators discussed these very 
different and partly contradictory criteria, thus Duges,{{ Monfalet,** and before 
all X. Lesbre, ff the veterinary anatomist of Lyons. 

I will here state briefly those characteristics on which these authors lay 
the most stress: 

According to Owen, in the upper series of grinders the degree of oblique attri- 
tion of premolar 2 causes its working surface to appear more produced and acute 
anteriorly than in less worn and more evenly worn specimens. Besides the general 
inferiority of size of teeth, molar 3 is relatively less than in Equus caballus and 
is not bilobed behind: the outer channels are more evenly curved or concave; 
and as the same character prevails in the inner enamel-wall of the lobes these are 
more regularly crescentic in shape. The longitudinal ridge is relatively narrower. 
A slight excess of fore-and-aft over transverse diameter of grinding surface is 
recognizable in the ass—such excess not being seen in the permanent grinders, 
premolar 3 to molar 2, of the horse. 

Rtitimeyer regards as a constant characteristic for the teeth of the ass, as 
compared with the horse, the relatively slight length of the foremost as well as of 
the hindmost molar in both the upper and lower jaws. Also he considers the 
premolars and molars in the ass to be shorter than in the horse; the foremost 
premolar tooth is strikingly short. Riitimeyer declares irrelevant the circum- 
stance mentioned by Owen that molar 3 superior is less bilobed in its posterior 
circumference than in the horse. He ascribes to the ass, at least in the teeth 
of the upper jaw, more oblique enamel plications than occur in the horse, but 
he remarks that one can not disregard the fact that all these characteristics, in so 
far as they concern construction of the teeth, recur in very old horse teeth; there- 
fore, in the earlier stages of abrasion, the teeth of the ass show the characteristics 
which correspond to the deeper parts of the tooth lying nearer to the root. In 
addition to this is the relatively small extent of the toothless part between pre- 
molars and canines, as well as the slight width of the incisor crown. Thus, in 
the ass the whole construction is more compact and crowded. 





* J]. C. Forsyth Major, Beitrage z. Geschichte d. fossilen Pferdes, insbesondere Italiens. Abhandl. 
Schweiz. paleontol. Gesellsch., vr and vu, 1880. 


+ Marie Pavlow, Etude sur I’histoire paléontologique des Qngulés. Bull. Soc. Imp. d. Naturalistes, 
Moscow, 1889. 

t Alfred Nehring, Fossile Pferde aus deutschen Diluvialablagerungen, Landw. Jahrb. 1884, Bd. 13, 
Ppp. 149 et seq. 

§ Waldemar Kowalewski, Monographie der Gattung Anthracotherium Cuv. u. Versuch einer nattir- 
lichen Klassification d. fossilen Huftiere. (Paleontographica, N. F.u, 3, xxi.) Sur lAnchiterium Aur- 
elianense Cuy. et sur l’histoire paléontologique des Chevaux. Mém. de I’ Académie Imp. d. Sciences, St.- 
rar 8 Vile SDeLic ute Da 59 ko 73. 

|| J. N. Woldrich, Beitrage z. Fauna der Breccien und anderer diluv. Gebilde Oesterreichs. Jahrb. 
k. k. Geol. Reichsanstalt, Bd. xxx, Heft 4. Wien, 1882. 

q A. Dugés, Paralelo de los craneos de caballo i de asino. Guanojuato, 1898. Actes Soc. Scient. d. 
Chilis tavillppay7. 7 

«TD, Monfalet, tee complémentaire sur la communication de M. Dugés. Jbidem, pp. 79, 80. 

Ths. Lesbre; Observations sur la machoire et les dents des Solipédes. Bull. Soc. d’ Anthropologie 
de Lyon, t. XI, 1892, pp. 49 e¢ seq. 


400 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


Frank states chiefly that the plication of the enamel-margin in the upper 
molars of the ass is less complex than in the Oriental horse, and that the so-called 
spur is here wholly wanting. He considers the best characteristic to be the fact 
that the distance from the anterior margin of the foramen occipitale to the median 
point of the vomer incision is shorter in the ass than the distance from the same 
point on the vomer to the end of the palatine suture. In the horse this dimension 
is much greater. 

Nehring also agrees with Frank as to the great value of this characteristic. 

Dugeés calls attention to the greater convexity of the forehead of the ass. 
According to him the face is shorter in comparison with the horse, and the orbits 
triangular. A perpendicular to the plane of support falls far behind the condyli 
of the occiput. The free part of the nasalia reaches to the posterior edge of the 
corpus maxillare and is therefore very long in the ass; then the spur is wanting 
on the teeth. In the horse, on the other hand, according to him, the forehead 
is flat, the orbits round and the occipital line touches the condyli. The free part 
of the nasalia does not reach to the middle of the incisive edge. The “‘spur’’ is 
characteristic of the teeth. 

Monfalet gives nothing on the characteristics of the face, but only on those 
of the brain-skull. 

The most accurate work, especially as regards dentition, is that of X. Lesbre. 
He is the first to distinguish between the teeth of the adult animal and of the 
young. He finds (p. 60) that in the horse, at the age of ten months, the ‘“‘spur,’’ 
which he calls “pli cabalin,”’ is already clearly developed. In the young ass this 
is always wanting. 

Lesbre confirms a shortening of the teeth of the adult ass through a kind 
of atrophy of the posterior pillar, but he considers the disposition of the enamel 
plications moreimportant. (1) In the upper molars the internal lobule is less devel- 
oped in the ass than in the horse, all proportions remaining the same; it is, in the 
first place, shorter towards the rear, so that its base stands median or almost 
median, and not, as in the horse, on the forward part of the tooth. In the first 
molar the plication is round in both animals, only in the ass it is less obliquely 
inclined toward the back than in the horse. (2) The exterior sides of the tooth 
seen from the grinding surface are narrow and simple in the ass, broad and com- 
pressed in the middle in the horse, especially the premolars. (3) The ‘‘spur”’ 
or pli cabalin is wanting in the ass at all ages, or is very inconspicuous, while 
in the horse it is often double, and disappears only at an advanced age, and earlier 
in the molars than in the premolars. (4) The crescentic islands are simpler in 
the ass than in the horse, less plicated and complex, but they often vary. (5) The 
outer channels are not so deep in the ass as in the horse. On the molars of 
the lower jaw Lesbre finds that the 8 formed by plications 1 and 2, has both of its 
loops generally rownd in the ass, and usually somewhat flattened and angular in the 
horse. In the ass both the loops of the 8 are equally large; in the horse the for- 
ward one is longer than the posterior, and they are separated by a sharp angle 
instead of by a curve. An exception is the first premolar, in which the posterior 


CRANIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ASS AND THE HORSE. 407 


loop is often greater than the forward one. The external channel is much less 
deep in the ass than in the horse. 

To discriminate among whole skulls, Lesbre finds by comparison, empirically, 
the method of drawing a connecting line between the tuber molaris and the fossa 
articularis ossis zygomaticr; if the prolongation of this line strikes the crista occipi- 
talis, or anterior to this cuts the facial plane, the animal is an ass; if this line passes 
posterior to the crista occipitalis it is a horse. 

Tscherski* places much dependence on the construction of the nasal bones 
and on the form of the suture between the lacrimal and the nasal bone. ‘This, 
he says, is in the ass always curved outward in bow shape, but is straight in the 
horse. I find that this relation is very dependent on the breadth of the forehead. 
The foramina infra-orbitalia stand nearer (to the naso-maxillar suture) in the ass 
than in the horse. He says, further, that in the horse the processus zygomatici 
ossis frontalis is three-cornered, but in the ass oval and compressed. 

Salenskif asserts that Tscherski’s criteria are valuable and to the point, 
especially the form of the suture between the lacrimal and the nasal bone, but that 
a difference in the cross-section of the processus zygomatici ossis frontalis can not 
be verified in the ass and horse. On the other hand, Salenski proposes another 
method, which he considers extremely constant: the lower edge of the lower 
jaw is in the ass curved and furnished with protuberances, while in the horse 
it is smooth and straight. Unfortunately I can not agree with Salenski, as I 
consider this criterion of the lower jaw very variable, eminently dependent on the 
age of the individual; one has only to compare the lower jaw-bone of the horse 
of Auvernier with the one of exactly similar shape in the ass from Abadieh (plate 
87, figs. 1 and 2). 

So far the authors. It is now time to investigate the conditioning factors 
that influence the shaping of the skull of the ass and of the horse. Starting with 
the law, which I have proved elsewhere,{ that the skull is a flexible product 
of the influence of skin and muscle, the longer ear and its generally different 
position seems to be decisive for the head of the ass. The greater burden imposed 
by the external ear must have had as a consequence a change in the musculature 
of the ear, which in turn, as is shown by Anthony$§ and Toldt| exerts its influence 
on the bones. Indeed the whole ear-musculature is different in the ass, as I was 
able to observe in agreement with Kirsten,{[ on the only fresh head that I could 
obtain. 








* J. D. Tscherski, Wissensch. Resultate d. Neusiberischen Expedition. Mém. Acad. Imp. St. 
Pétersbourg, t. XL, 1893. : 

+W. Salenski, Equus przewalski Polyakof. Wissensch. Resultate d. von Przewalski nach Central 
Asien unternommenen Reisen. Zoolog. Teil, Bd. 1, Abt. 2, Lief 1, pp. 27-47, St. Petersburg, 1902. 

tExperimentelle Studien ueber die Morphogenie des Schaedels der Cavicornia, Vierteljahrschr. 
Naturf. Gesellsch. Zitirich, 1903, pp. 360-374. 


§R. Anthony, Etudes experimentales sur la morphogénie des os. Modification craniennes consecu- 
tives a l’oblation d’un crotaphyte chez le chien. Journal de Physiologie et de Pathologie Gén., No. 2, 
Mars, 1903. 4 ed ol he 

|| R. Toldt, Asymetrische Ausbildung der Schlaefenmuskeln bei einem Fuchs infolge einseitiger Kau- 
tatigkeit. Zoolog. Anzeiger, 1905, Bd. xxix, No. 6. : ; 

{F. Kirsten, Untersuchung ueber die Ohrmuskulatur verschiedener Saugetiere. Inaug. Diss., Bonn, 
1902. 


408 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


Not to go into anatomical details, this difference is shown, before all, in the 
significant enlargement and bipartition of the musculus retrahens aurts brevis, which 
Kirsten aptly calls musculus abductor auris brevis. Strikingly enlarged, too, 
in the ass are the musculus abductor (retrahens) auris longus; musculus adductor 
(scutulo auricularis) auris inferior; musculi levatores auris longi, medius, et brevis, 
and others. In consequence of the insertion, direct or indirect, of these muscles 
on the occipital crista and the linea nuchalis of the occiput, it is clear that in the 
ass a stronger pull is exerted on the occipital surface and the lever-arm which 
is formed by the crista. Through this action there must necessarily follow an 
inequality in the back part of the brain-skull. 

Variations may of course be caused by the size of the ears, as also by the 
manner of carrying them, as the flap-ears of the Sudanese domestic ass, in contrast 
with the Asiatic. In my opinion, therefore, the most important characteristic 
in the bony head for determining the specific difference between the ass and horse 
is the position of the occiput. This can be recognized by three different methods 
which are, however, of unequal uniformity and exactness in practice. (1) Lesbre’s 
method of the cheek-crista line, for the clearer expression of which I would make 
a suggestion later. (2) The Frank-Nehring method—distance from foramen occip- 
itale to vomer palatinum. (3) The inclination of the occipital plane mentioned by 
Duges, for the determination of which I would also propose a new method. 

Besides this there are other, mostly less regularly marked, features which 
can be traced to the action of the ear-musculature; the lateral edges of the occipi- 
talia lateralia are drawn more strongly towards the meatus auditoritus externus; 
the funnel of the meatus auditorius externus is more erect, etc. But, as was said 
before, there is here much room for the play of individual variation. 

It may occur in practice that one has only a skull of an equid without cheek- 
bones or maxtlle; in this case, to determine the inclination of the occiput, use a 
tangent, B, on the faczes-surface of the frontales and nasales. If, on the other hand, 
the maxillary is present, draw first Lesbre’s line; on this (A) or on the facial tan- 
gent (B) erect a perpendicular which touches the highest or most aboral point 
of the crista occipitalis, and draw a tangent from this same point, first, on the 
upper edge of the foramen magnum, and second, on the most aboral point of the 
condyli; we find, according to my measurements of these angles to date, on thirty- 
two skulls: 

re Aa. Bd; Bi2t 
HLOTSeS Scan eeet ee 14-25° 10-24° 15-30° 10-25° 
ASSES Sasa nit cetera aevere 35-50° 30-35° 35-50> 30-45° 

As is clear in this table, as great as is the difference between the ass and 
horse, the difference between the two relations A and B is small, and we can 
therefore use either the line A or B, according to the state of preservation of the 
material. I call this angle ear-load index (Ohrbelastungsindex) to indicate its 
dependence on the ear-musculature. 

In order to express the Lesbre line numerically in an index I have applied 
the following method: draw the Lesbre line and then a connecting line between 
the crista occipitalis and the intersection of the Lesbre line with the articular 


CRANIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ASS AND THE HORSE. 409 


jossa of the lower jaw. The angle formed by the two lines is the positive or negative 
parvetal-crest-curvature index (Scheitelkruemmungsindex); the angle being positive 
(+) when the crista lies below the Lesbre line, and negative (— ) when the crista 
lies above the Lesbre line. According to this, horses should almost always have 
a negative, and asses a positive index. 

Since the ‘‘Lesbre line’’ leaves at times something to be wished for, I have 
chosen a second-control index which expresses the size of the acute angle formed 
between the prolongation of the facial tangent and that of a tangent on the brain 
part of the frontal and of the parietalia. In the ass this angle is about 40°, and 
in the horse 20° to 30°. 

As regards the bones of the facies, it is to be noted that the observations 
of the length of the free part of the nasal bones have absolutely no value, since 
this is wholly individual, or possibly also subject to racial variations. Also I 
do not find the shape of the sutures of the nasalia with the frontal and the lacrimal 
to be always characteristic; if they are useful, as stated by Salenski and Tscherski, 
they are too dependent on the width of the frontal to be decisive. Not more so 
is the shape of the lacrimal on which Riitimeyer seemed to place great reliance; 
nor can the triangular form of the orbital be used as a characteristic of species. 

Lastly, as regards the teeth characteristics, the occurrence of the ‘‘spur’’ 
must be used, notwithstanding Lesbre’s assurances, with some caution; I agree 
with Rttimeyer, Tscherski, and Owen, when IJ assign a higher value to the position 
of the internal lobule and its form, as also to the size of premolar 2 and molar 3. 
In this connection I have made some very instructive experiments by grinding 
on teeth of asses and horses, and have thereby arrived at the conviction that, 
as regards the ‘“‘spur,”’ by grinding to a sufficient depth, one may make out of every 
horse tooth an ass tooth, and sometimes from an ass tooth a horse tooth, without 
taking into account that in the first teeth of the ass ever published (Owen, plate 
Lvul, fig. 1) the spur shows on all the teeth and even double on one. Such cases 
are, however, extremely rare, and the ‘‘spur’’ is nevertheless to be regarded 
as a useful characteristic. 

After this review of the criteria in question we can pass now to a comparison 
of the ancient Egyptian mummified ass with the horse of Auvernier. The brain- 
skull of the ass of Abadieh shows the following relations: the ear-load index 
(Ohrbelastungsindex) is 42° with the foramen tangent, 35° with the condylus 
tangent; the same index on the skull of the Auvernier horse is 28° with the foramen 
tangent (B1); the condylus tangent (B2) is not measurable, as the condyli are 
broken off. The parietal curvature index (Scheitelkruemmungsindex) is + 22° 
on the ass of Abadieh, and —7° on the horse of Auvernier. Riitimeyer remarked 
that there was something asslike in the shortness of head and width of forehead 
of the equid of Auvernier. 

Teeth.—I have already discussed the teeth characteristics as described by 
Riitimeyer, and have repeatedly drawn the conclusion that the equid of Auvernier 
is a horse. The teeth are indeed very short and close-set. But we see clearly 
the horselike shape of the internal lobule which is very widely drawn out in two 
horns, while in the ass of Abadieh it is round and placed median. Then, too, 


41O THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


in the ass the “spur’’ is wanting on all the teeth, while the equid of Auvernier 
has it on all the premolars and on the third molar. It is noteworthy, though 
without value in distinguishing between species, that the ass of Abadieh has the 
first premolar, which is not frequent at this age. I find no differences in the inci- 
sors, which are fully present in both skulls. The incisive part of the Auvernier 
equid is, with a width of 62 mm., somewhat wider than that of the ass, which 
measures only 52 mm. ‘The equid of Auvernier had during life a broader muzzle 
than the ass, again recalling the horse, which, especially in the diluvial horse, 
had a very broad muzzle, broader than is shown in recent horses (83 to 88 mm., 
Nehring, op. cit., p. 90). 

The equid of Auvernier is thus shown to differ in its principal points from 
the ass of Abadieh and must, therefore, be regarded as a horse and no longer as 
an ass. We may see confirmatory evidence that it is a horse that was used by 
the people of Auvernier, in the size of a bronze bit from the pile-dwelling of 
Mohringen on the same Lake of Bienne; this measures 9 cm., while the maxilla 
where the snaffle lies measures 5.1 cm. Moreover, Marek* has published a series 
of skulls from stations of the same age, as well as later (among them a plaster 
cast of the Auvernier horse), which are classed by him as Helveto-Gallic horses. 

If it has been shown that Rtitimeyer erred in his determination of the Auvernier 
skull, it is now easy to prove the same in the case of Sanson. ‘Two skulls in the 
Galerie de Paléontologie of the Museum in Paris belong, in dimensions and in 
form, to the same variety of horse as that of Auvernier, and their special charac- 
teristics will now be considered. 

We can take up the thread of our argument at the point where we left it 
(p. 403) in order to identify these two skulls, which, if they had been African 
asses, would have been of fundamental importance as to the distribution of domes- 
tic animals in prehistoric times. 

(b) The copper time of the bronze age brought to Europe the small, slender- 
limbed horses whose domesticated condition is for the first time certain; and 
which is proved also to have existed in: 

(c) The La Tene Period (iron) and which have been already treated by Studer,t 
Marek,{ Kraemer,§ and others. 

(d) The Hallstatt Period seems, probably on account of the heavier armor 
of the cavalry of that time, to bring us already the heavy type of horse that we 
find in Roman times at Vindonissa; at least the skull from Schuettarschen, which 
will soon be treated of, differs in several respects from those of the bronze and 
La Tene periods. Unfortunately we have from Schuettarschen no bones of the 
extremities to aid in more exact discrimination. 

(e) The Roman Times bring us better, more abundant material, as we shall 
see in the finds from Vindonissa. 





*T. Marek, Das Helvetisch-Gallische Pferd, ete. Abhandl. Schweiz. paleont. Gesellsch., Ziirich, 1898. 
7 Th. Studer, Die Tierwelt in den Pfahlbauten des Bielersees. Mith. Berner naturf. Gesellsch., 1883. 
tJ. Marek, Das Helvetisch-Gallische Pferd. Abhandl. d. Schweiz. pal. Gesellsch., xxv, 1898. 

§ Kraemer, Haustierfunde von Vindonissa. Revue Suisse de Zoologie, t. 7, 1899, pp. 143 et seq. 


PLATE 87: 











erie ol 








Fic. 1. Norma lateralis of skull (restored) of the horse (Equus caballus pum pellit) from pile-dwellings at Auvernier (Switzerland). 
Museum, Zirich. 


2. Norma lateralis of skull of the ass of Abadieh, IV dynasty, Egypt; coll. by Flinders Petrie; British Museum, Natural History. 


Swiss National 





PLATE 88. 





3 


Fic. 1, Norma verticalis of skull of a greathorse (Eq. caballus Fic. 3. Norma verticalis of skull of an old Eg. caballus pumpellir 


robustus Nehring) of Hallstadt time. Schiittar- from the turbary of Kutterschitz (Bohemia), 
schen (Bohemia), Museum Teplitz. Museum of Teplitz. 
2. Norma verticalis of skull of Eq. przewalskit Pol. 5-year- 4, Norma verticalis of skull.of a young animal from a 


old stallion. Photograph by Prefessor Noack, turbary at Sobrusan (Bohemia), 





PLATE 89. 





3 


Fic. 1. Norma lateralis of skull of horse from Alemannic tomb at Kénigsfelden (Switzerland). 
2. Norma lateralis of skull of Equus przewalskii Polyakoff. Photograph by Prof. Noack. 
" 3. Norma lateralis of skull of young Sobrusan horse. 





THE SKULL OF THE PREHISTORIC HORSES. AII 


The horse of the La Téne period remains, however, till still later times, as 
is shown by a skull from an Alemannic grave at Ko6nigsfelden near Vindonissa. 
After this review of the most important finds at our disposal of remains of horses, 
dating from different periods, we may attempt to compare these finds with each 
other and with the Anau horse, which, with the horses of the Quaternary epoch 
and that of the paleolithic age at Solutré, ranks oldest among the horses we have 
considered. 


THE SKULL) OF THE. PREHISTORIC. HORSES. 
THE TEETH. 


The incisors of both jaws are abundantly represented in the collection before 
me. Still, notwithstanding the opinion of Wilckens,* I do not believe that their 
characteristics will be of value in classifying races and species; the phenomena 
of their growth and abrasion are sufficiently well-known and are widely used 
in determining age. 

Although Salenskif says that Equus przewalski has larger teeth than any 
other horse, this may be inconclusive, since this characteristic is essentially 
dependent on the age of the animal. Moreover, I have not been able to find out 
whether Salenski had in mind the whole length of a tooth or measured only the 
chewing surface. Indeed, it seems from the size of the dimensions that by length 
Salenski meant the projection of the tooth out of the alveola and called the length 
of the chewing surface ‘“‘width.’? The value of such measurements is naturally 
problematic, since with age the incisors can project from 1 to 7 cm., and especially 
since we do not know from Salenski exactly how old (according to the teeth) 
were the animals in question. 

More important than the size of the teeth is the width of the intermaxillary, 
which gives the means of determining the width of muzzle of the living animal. 

From Anau, however, we have some specimens in which the intermaxillary 
can not be measured because the teeth are broken off. I will use here, for com- 
parison with those from other localities, better preserved specimens of lower jaws. 


Dimensions of corpus of lower jaw (in millimeters). 




















eee! Diastema 
Greatest | Seca Height of from in- 
width. bari até corpus. cisors to 
: canines. 
( nee 40 32 Re 
PATICUIEMOLSE Guctayersdeelenehere cists 0 st-tns centers oo se 7 Soha 35 58 a 
Diluvial horse after Nehring, upper jaw....... 84 stots Seer: 18 
Diluvial or paleolithic, Schellenken, upper jaw, 
piglet? WORST cok «eee ete ewan ane vam | 67 ce Boge 18 
VOStonmtza male sory ears, . amet ees se ier ie 62 35 24 10 
Gross Czernosek,smale;' 8 yearga se ee'\s10)5 5-101: 62 43 25 5 
Liebshausen (La Téne), male, 14 years....... 64 40 29 9 
Gross Czernosek (Rasch), 10 years........... 56 37 23 Asa 
PeePTAEZ 5 COLIC gr el, Disiata sinti Ae lsd sm =m Sete ws 8 We 38 27 
PANUVERTIICL Wt ee tactics ster tkas srete.s serene ale aaetate cis 60 were avery 
Alemannic horse, Koenigsfelden............. 61 














*M. Wilckens, Beitrage f. Kenntniss des Pferdegebiss, etc. Halle, 1888. Nova Acta, K. Leop.-Carol. 
deutsch. Akad. d. Naturf. 
TOp. cit., p. 48. 





412 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


The molars both of the Anau horse and of the other subfossil horses are 
represented by hundreds, but a detailed study of them can be of use only when 
we possess sets of teeth which surely belong together, as we fortunately have in 
a complete half of a palate from Anau. 

After what has been said in reviewing the specific characteristics of ass and 
horse, it is superfluous to follow the course of each enamel plication. Here we 
will notice the principal differences; as regards the masticating surface the accom- 
panying drawings (fig. 491) will speak for themselves. Nehring and later Sal- 
enski affirm that the relations assumed by Frank, for the Oriental and Occidental 
horses, between length and breadth of masticating surface (teeth broader than 
long in the Oriental, and longer than broad in the Occidental horse) are not deci- 
sive; indeed this relation is greatly influenced by the age of the animal, since 
through progressive grinding off of the teeth these become smaller towards the 
roots, and the row of teeth shortens. Nevertheless a comparative tabulation of 
the size-relations of the whole row of teeth is probably worth making. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 

































































e : e Pre- Pre- Pre- Molar | Molar | Molar 
y |% \\| S |molar 2.| molar 3.| molar 4. rs 2. 3. 
SB A. 8 E 
Grinding surface of a 8 al 
upper molars. 6 |S) 3 
Sisssldlalaleilsislalelala/4ala 
tit |wi ele de | eee eee) ad 
Anau (Equus caballus pumpellir) 

5-year-old specimen....... 176 |r52 |r00 | 38 |'26 | 32°) 28 | 28. 27 | 25 | 26.27 | Sar Saee 
pame,, —24 feets can cam ast ne Prt leckee | ameese hee 6 27 | 26 | 26 | 26 |°25 1.26 |) 25aleon 
Kesslerloch diluvial horse, 8 | 

Vearssok. Ue ekee eee sta, 1250.1 06,37 | 24-735 es 1.26) 25 bee rege eames 

| Auvernier domestic horse, 

bronze age, 6 years........ 153 |127 | 81 | 33 | 22 | 24.| 23 | 23 | 24 | 2r | 24") a1) oe) eee 
Konigsfelden, Alemannic time, 

7 Years, chon oh Peete ees 162 |136-| or 1.37 | 225)°25 | 23 |' 24) 257) 21 |) oe ol tox a ono cme 
Hostomitz, 1) Vearsee eter 170 |144.| 89 | 35 |. 23.|' 27. | 25.| 22.1 23) 26, )"22.\°26")(23 0) soa 5mies 
Remagen, diluvial horse, after 

Nehring, 1O;yearssee eee 169}, 2 | ce | 37 24 29: 1-20) | 27 1h2Q 1 25 | 20 26") conlee vamos 
Remagen diluvial horse, after 

Schwatze 12 ite ec etee ae [ves He etigs i. 24 |-30%530))| 289-28 tees eases. Wooniseommee 
Thiede diluvial horse, after 

Nehring, 6 years. ..3.: 005% oe | ae | oa] 38 | 26] 32) 207 24 ve P9265] 27.526 | 26 1) Sonam 
Westeregeln diluvial horse, 

after! Nebrin golds. ee) een (3). | @) 1-29 | 29 1:28 | 30.) 26 }:27 | 26 | 27 eae 
Equus przewalskit, after Sal- (\170-) 

engi 2... teeters ou de Ur85 |b °° 37) 25 1 29 4 294 AT 29 4 FE ee a 
Equus przewalskit, Mus. Bern..| .. | .. | «. | 40 | 21 | 27 | 23] .. 

Indian horse, after Nehring, 

7 years, Muss Berlina... 4: 154 | se | ool 37 ue23 i) 207126 2s h253| 22 2 es oak 2 caleo camo 
Arabian horse, after Nehring, 

7 WCATSislis ja crelate a kepter steno iers 168 | we} os). 38 1°26 29-427 27 927 4 2427 foe 27 eon 
Grisonian horse, after Nehring, 

SeVEAarse oe uee atemueerneek I stelle ois Sale 28 | 2 2 2 20miee 263) 26m 2 a 
eter (Tyrol) horse, after My : se et a / ie 

Nehring, 10 yeafs.......0 PST) see iile. Sar 0.628320) 28ale278 270 27a e2Oulusonee 
Holstein horse, after Nehring, : 7 he : asa a? ; : 

MON CALS veueteneieselsiistetsie te ers 16 rare fare Saez 2 2 Zou s20n| 2O0\n2 2 2 2387102 
Dutch horse, after Nehring, 30 : : ; f : : : ‘ 

Fears O10 vows aes heen ie II74.] o« | ae 19°37) 234 284126 Le7 82771 25) 279-20 et Laas 




















THE SKULL, OF THE PREHISTORIC HORSES. A13 





Fig. 491. (a) Teeth of Equus caballus pumpellii. Right part of upper maxilla. 
(b) Teeth of Ass, from the Mummy from Abadieh, Egypt. 
(c) Teeth of Horse, Pile-dwelling of Auvernier (Bronze Age). 
(d) Teeth of Equus przewalskii. 
(e) Teeth of Tscherski’s Siberian Horse. 


The form of the enamel of the teeth deserves further consideration, but 
since in horses the enamel is more wavy in younger than in older animals, while 
in the ass the reverse is the case, only specimens of similar age must be com- 
pared. Frank asserts that in the Oriental horse the enamel plication is less than 
in the Occidental. ‘The most marked enamel plication of the interior borders of 
the anterior islands is shown in the diluvial horses; among these especially in the 
horses of Westeregeln and Thiede. The horse of Remagen has also slighter rip- 
pling, and I find it still less in the horse of Kesslerloch and Solutré. The plication 





414 


THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


of the enamel of the Anau horse stands midway between the Siberian horse of 
Tscherski and the diluvial horses of Rutimeyer, on the one hand, and on the other 
hand, the subfossil horses now before me from Hostomitz, Auvernier, Schuet- 
tarschen, and Konigsfelden, which have a much simpler enamel plication than 
animals of the modern heavy Occidental races of exactly equal age. 


THE SKULL AND ITS PROPORTIONS. 


In beginning the study of a horse’s skull one asks instinctively: was the skull 


large or small? 


Indeed the length of the skull gives a very good rule for deter- 


mining the withers-height, and thereby also a provisional classification of the horse. 
It is accepted that heavy horses have the largest heads, and that light Oriental 


horses and ponies have the smallest skulls. 


I shall not speak here of the methods 


of taking the measurements, and will only refer for these to the rule drawn up 
by me in association with Professor Kraemer at the request of the Deutsche 
Gesellschaft fur Zuechtungskunde, which will soon appear. 

Since it is possible to calculate with approximate accuracy the length of 
the skull from any of its measures of length (the longest measure possible being 
preferable), I have calculated this for all the incomplete subfossil skulls before 
me, from the proportions obtained from 50 skulls that the molar row stands to 
the basilar length as 10 : 28, and to the anterior length as Io : 31. 


Length of skulls (an millimeters). 




















Length | Length 
| Length | Length of 
on base. anterior | on base. anterior 
face. | face. 

| Clydesdale horse, after Nehring. | 574 62: | Equus przewalskii, after Salenski: 
Horse from Boulogne, coll. | } NO:25218'5.c:0-04 9) sras.c mee on EO 543 
Duerst:./:. cen = oe eee 543 618 | NQiS2 720 a oe ce a ee | 472 528 
Diluvial horse from Nussdorf, | Neolithic horse, Kutterschitz....| 487 543 
| after Woldmehiaee see ae 555 | Alemannic horse, Kénigsfelden..| 490 536 
_ Diluvial horse from Remagen, La Téne horse, Hostomitz....... 470 O77 
alter Nehring: “2051s ene 528 | 562 | Arabian horse, from Abassii, | 
Schuettarschen, horse of the | | | after Nehring 35. as sees 476 520 
iron time (Hallstatt) .......| 506 | 560 | Indian horse, after Nehring...... 438 492 
_ Arabian horse, after Nehring...) 500 | 540 | Auvernier, bronze time horse. ... 436 485 
| Thoroughbred British race | | Subfossil horse from Gera, after | 
horse, coll. Duerst.........) 496 | 538 || Nehring sfiyknciue ocr | 
Anau horse, calculated, 5 years | | Exmoor pony, 15 years, after 
Old ...25 eae tee eens eeeeee 492 545 | Webring: tin. wer etc tt tee 
Equus przewalskii, after Salenski: _ Neolithic horse, turbary, Somme 
No. S213 cee oe eee | 485 542 | (France) a: ede te crea 
No, 52 8Ose ae ok ae oe ee | 495 547 1) Ass from Abadieh?. pe sei see ac 
No. 5214 484 538 | Ass from Aden, British Museum 








It follows from this comparison that the Anau horse had a skull of about 
the same size as Equus przewalsku and that the other Bohemian subfossil horses, 
like the Alemannic horse of Konigsfelden, stand very near the Anau horse and 
In contrast, it appears that the horse of the 
bronze age from Auvernier has a very notably smaller skull, but still smaller is that 
of the subfossil horse of Gera and Spandau mentioned by Nehring. And smallest 
of all is the skull of the neolithic horse from a turbary of the Somme in France, 
being smaller than that of the smallest Exmoor pony in the Berlin collection; 


Przewalski horse in size of skull. 


THE SKULL OF THE PREHISTORIC HORSES. AI5 


and yet this little animal seems fully adult; in this we may see an explanation 
of the errors of Sanson and Rutimeyer. 

The next question relating to the skull of a horse must concern the indices 
of ear-load (Ohrbelastung) and of parietal curvature (Scheitelkruemmung). 
Unfortunately I am not able to produce here a very comprehensive tabulation 
of these indices on prehistoric horses, since I am able to verify them only on the 
skulls actually before me in natura. 


Table of indices. 




















| 
| ‘ 
Far-load index. | Parietal crest | 
Facies tangent. Lesbre. SNe) Uke index: 

TN. te Be2. Br. } Be. Car. Gey 
Equus przewalskit, male, 3 years............. woes: 15 25 ee 23 —7 a 
REMC ELSC MIGZ a eee ctatac sr ctcgt eaeucia aie fee sts Ae Bees pre We eens se. 2 
RE ESE Sige IIUU cee oh stale a ucls< 2 «Fao cal pie ule wishe od 20 17 i et a er 30 
PCHVELTALSCH ETI = setae area cmasediok estes = Gs 20 ity) 22 18 —7 23 
ANTERTES GON Clr es fs Sg RE ee een aaa 23 a: 7 Sled dae ag —7 25 
MDOSSeed Ort IMIS OKI ieagaae in cisin tials 3) edeisoss 3 Ore) 15 24 a 20 —7 22 
HPameNeHe: | MUIS4 DCL ec crinere ees sisies net « 21 15 Ae 9 ake —7 22 
PHICSCEEZ eee FP. sie Crime rece Peas wie eTdiene wesc | 4 4 22 II —6 22 
oC ERS ot ie CU Dec ne eb ane ir anne 21 10 25 14 —5 18 























Still more important in discriminating between different races of horses is 
the relation of breadth of forehead to length of skull. We know that, as Sanson 
has shown, the ass and the Oriental horse as well as the ponies are broad-fronted, 
while the heavy Occidental horses are usually narrow-fronted, as are also the 
quaggas and zebras. The following table, based on Nehring’s method of deter- 
mining this relation, exhibits the order of the skulls of the different races, when 
arranged according to size. I must remark that, in inserting the frontal width of 
the Anau horse I have calculated this approximately from the palatal width, 
which is determinable. The palatal width is to the frontal width as 10:21, 
which I obtained from a series of 20 Oriental and 10 Occidental skulls; at the 
same time I ascertained that this ratio is always greater in the Oriental race than 
in the Occidental. 


Ratio of basal length to width of frontal bone. 


EGE: 
Ass from Abadieh (Egypt) mummified skull, 5 years, male........-........... 210 
DScitt Onl PAG ene cAra ia) ssavegromiciial Cae) ire eran cl. einer rns ereltch ik 9222 
HOrsentOmerceiancdmalter: Nelrino wOLd a Ialeoe ami eiernennett ena taiaicieleie n22 1, 7 
Horse from attire of cbcipsee, alter Nehring c.c- Gch) k os be see oot wee ad 223 
PopseirommatunoaLya Oracle? sommes (Hance) eeueri cies oe. cles vA ogee ans) e) sicpe as 230 
Morsenromlceland tatters Nehring ,onvearsetialevyariia ss ceila iis sine ce ie cae. 230 
HorsedromeArabiawalters Nehring: Si veats ailales migaeiel eases nei abe eres so 230.7 
FLOTSEELt ONES 120 UES RV CALS ep tmnaicie a marae Oe ae Sia eeareie lakh? o. viscaieiers main casts 0.0232 
Horsetron Gillbrandsdals(skatia)y alteneNeunnpn serra. sates cieere te re oe ees 232007 
ES OUUSEDTZEWOISR ID walters Oalensklis ees owe flep goes ciate av. ke peice dueietals ais ies ese) «1 232-244 
Horse from Kalmukia, after Nehring, 4 to 5 years, male...................... 239 
Horse from Auvernier, Switzerland, bronze time, 6 years, female............... 240 
Horse from Grisons (Switzerland), after Nehring, 8 years, male................ 241 4 
Horse from Schuettarschen (Bohemia), Hallstatt iron time, old................ 241 
Horse from Kutterschitz (Bohemia), 12 m. deep in earth, neolithic............243 
Horse from Pinzgau (Tyrol), after Nehring, 10 years, male...................4. 242 
Horse from diluvium of Remagen (Rhenania), after Nehring..................249 
Horse from Hostomitz) (Bohemia), La Téne, 4 years...........-.2....5:0s-5 253 
WorsefromsPimzranecryrol) atter Pranks O1yearsy malesuada sce oc 254.6 


Horse from Grisons (Switzerland), after Nehring, old, female..................255 


416 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


We see here that the skulls from the Somme, with a ratio of 230, stand in the 
same class with those of the Iceland ponies and the Anau horse, together with the 
Arabian horse and the smallest specimens of Equus przewalsku. Here, too, comes 
the Auvernier horse of the bronze age, and it agrees well with a Kalmuk horse of 
Nehring’s series; but the Bohemian horses all belong to the narrow frontal class. 

Nehring, in his table of this ratio finds the smallest index, on a real horse, 
on a Turkestan mare brought from Bushed by von Schlagenweit; her index was 
only 212. He calls broad-fronted all horses with indices up to 240, and narrow- 
fronted all above this. 

Tscherski, as we have seen already in the general discussion, distinguishes 
also medium-fronted horses, among which he includes all with indices between 
226 and 240. If we would avoid the expressions broad and narrow-fronted, it 
would be better, as Eichbaum has mentioned, to use the terms “ dolichoprosopic”’ 
and ‘‘brachyprosopic’’ than ‘‘dolichocephalic’’ and ‘‘brachycephalic,’”’ since it 
is not the brain-cap but the face that varies. 

The diluvial horses of Germany appear at once to have been narrow-fronted, 
while those of Siberia, of Tscherski, and the Equus przewalsku of Salenski were the 
medium-fronted. With these we must rank the horse of Anau, and there remains 
only the question as to where the horses of Solutré and Kesslerloch belong. San- 
son wished to count them among the ‘dolichocephali;’’ he is, however, opposed 
by Fraas, who ranks them with the Wiirtemberg fossil horses as short-headed. 

The studies of Studer* and Heschelerf also, as regards the Swiss horses, have 
supplied no valuable data concerning the shape of head. 


BASILAR AND PALATAL REGION. 


I can not leave the discussion of the skull without touching upon Frank’s 
proportion of the basilar-palatal region, although this dimension can neither be 
directly measured on the remains from Anau, nor calculated with approximate 
accuracy. I have determined the value of this index (which is also influenced 
by the ear-musculature) in discriminating between ass and horse, and I remark 
that Salenski as well as Nehring considers it of the greatest value; yet Nehring 
asserts that a real ass, Equus teniopus, resembles in this respect a horse. But since 
this index is a weakened repetition of the ear-load and parietal-curvature indices, it 
is better to use the more delicate method; however this may be, a brief review of 
this index in our horses is given in the following table: 


From From 
foramen vomer to 
magnum sutura 
tovomer. palatina. 

Equus asinus from Sarepta, 5 years, after Nehring.................. he 95 
Equus caballus, Exmoor pony, 35 years, after Nehring............. CR 9g! 
Equus asinus, East Africa, alter Nehting2). ic... «- 09. «as ea ede TOE: 88 
Equus caballus Auvermieten -4 orcs ieee ee ethene ine eee 102005 8100 
Equus caballus. Kitterschitz.4 css ce set at here een TOR: 94 
Equus caballus Turkestan, 10 years, after Nehring ..................-. ise 96 
Equus caballus Schuettarschen, Hallstatt time..................055 130. 28) 2 100 
Diluvial horse; Remagen) after Nehring’. oe ee eee eae TAO Le 








*Studer, Die Tierreste aus den Pleistocaenen Ablagerungen des Schweizerbildes bei Schaffhausen. 
Neue Denkschriften Schweiz. Naturf., 1902. Die Knochenreste aus der Héhle zum Kesslerloch bei 
Thayngen, ibid., 1904. 

{ Hescheler. A written communication from the author from a study not yet published, received 
with many thanks. 





















































THE BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. 417 
Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 
¢ = 4 Equus caballus pumpellit. e janie 
vrs Pile- Al eer caballus 
3 om Turbary | dwelling | 2Utbary| Bronze | Turbary ian ae Cath robustus 
Skull. cs". of yesh of yon as of Kut- | time of | of So- Kae “ie N 7 £0". |Hallstatt 
e208! Gomme ice terschitz} Hosto- | brusan Fac eso time of 
ies, : : (Bohe- | mitz, | (Bohe- oe ‘: | Schuet- 
32.4) France. | (Switz- mia). |Bohemi . (Switz- |Salenski.|, h 
S erland). : ohemia| mia), erland). arschen. 
emma lett hin G840. 20). 6 sites ves 449 |407 477 543* 497* 528 560* 
ReMMRRMRRPOIO UN Se econ 8 cc's nO oe oo « 389. (396 |....1 436 487* erin 453* 472 506* 
Lateral length of frontal bone.......| ..-- |151 |170 | 169 185 ere: 157 I9I ate 198 
BEL AMOIAIS 6 hie cn oss dns gst 6 as 62 | 59 67 84 79 rene 72 81 
Penetn of premolars... ..... 66.0505 BO bess class 81 89 89 gI ee 
Aen ecu ol diastema c: «4 <ss.s ns oc sos. 5A OO since 89 Me oe 97 
Tie OE ee 200° {189 j.a<+| 233 : 267 seas 
Length of dental series of lower jaw..| 141 |....|... 159 = ohare 178 
Length of diastema of lower jaw..... 58 81 74 
Width of ascending branch of lower 
ooo Ane ee ee LOOM | tele eves LOT ae 25 sford S850 
Greatest length of lower jaw........ SSAME Aero est bP 52 needa ye Nini ae 421 ieee 
Penreworirontal..i- 22.0. ee... es LOZ |U7Sulesa-i LO7 244 210 189 225* 250 245 
Greatest height of skull............ OR No arlene) eaete preieys S06 116 115 246 119 
Greatest height of occipital.......... 89 | 85 | 82 85 ue 74 89 III I10 
Least height of occipital............ 62 | 60] 55 57 me 47 52 ee 62 
Greatest width of occipital.......... 106 | 99 |102 94 sete 89 109 II4 108 
Least width of occipital............ Owes <tc 54 chop Be 49 60 Sear 67 
Weastawicth of frontal. s.<.:0n.< 6. oc ss 7 LOAu EO 81 84 80 74 72% 88 go 
Greatest width of frontal.......... 185 |167 |174 | 182 200 188 168 184* 202 209 
ester between interior corners of 
Ga a a eee PIGMVISHLIT4 rls I 132 II 114* I 
Width of brain-skull between tem- a ; : ; ig 
DOL ee ne ty ears tena ahan eee atal'e s efore as 99 | 89 100 110 110 99 I1O 110 
Width between oral ends of crista 
EMMIS eT or Ia7 Ok woke ce yc tks 138 |133 |132 148 162 150 148 vo 165 
Width of corpus premaxillare....... G2 aed Omar s 62 ay ete Agee 74 ise 
Greatest width of nasalia.......... QOMIESA atte ta are 110 Stole 90 Ee 112 
Width of palate between molar 3...| 93 Then) 9/5 98 87 gl ome 95 
Width of palate before premolar 2...) 44 | 47 |.... 61 58 ae oh ney 


























* Not exactly measurable. 


THE BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. 


Referring to my comparative treatment of the bones of the extremities, in 
chapter xvi, I will, to avoid repetition, lay stress only on such characteristics 
and dimensions of these bones as are of importance to our discussion; besides, I 
will add the tarsal and femoral bones, which were omitted in the earlier discussion. 
We have already noticed the marked slenderness of the scapula of Equus pum- 
pellii, a feature which Frank* has already pointed out as a characteristic of the 
Arabian-Oriental horse. Particularly noteworthy in comparison with the scapule 
of the diluvial horse of Kesslerloch is the slight convexity of the contours of the 
bone at the collum; the edge of the articulation and the tuberculum supraglenoidale 
on the one hand and the squama on the other hand project very little over the 
straight line; this helps to produce the general impression of great slenderness. 
From this it is clear that the Roman horse of Vindonissa was almost as large as 
a recent horse of Pinzgau. 





*Frank, Anatomie der Haustiere, 2 Aufl., p. 210. 


418 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 


























Scapula. Humerus. Radius. 
Width of|Width of : : 
Length. superior| distal | Length. te Length. puter 
part. part. 
Anat: JR Sas nosh okies 310 120 (?) 64 rhe 60-68 rene 65-70 
| Schlossberg ss... ts - ccuccenn e8s:. Tl i742 Ae we nae Ber eee 
Kreisgruben* (after Neh- 

Lille): F. net teiaye eee 280 142 70 238 60 295 68 
Fallow pony (after Nehring) eer’ arte Peas 261 67 Aotar See 
Vindonissay ci a ene ee 360 ore 95 294 81 
Pinzgau (after Nehring)....| 365 189 104 ony ¢ At 
Przewalski horse (after Sal- 

eniSki) 120k itis shee cere eee: Sith abs 261 74 316 80 
Przewalski horse (Bern)....| .... weer: sea a sates 276 70 
Equus stenonts (after Major) ee aa: ee 281 69-75 340 85.5 
Westeregeln (after Nehring) dene ia aie fe Pees cia 213 83 Aer ACE 

| Cardamone (after Major). 2) ~~. =. ders ee 305 84 333 QI.5 
Va ems ive cite tant macs ete 55 is ites mloe eee 303 68 
SLankowiltZ nei een eee PfaL a Aste le Pree ae Peay 292 70 

: Son ee ers Fyse Hote e aha 283 72 
Hostomitz cis etre oe Nee ee ae mar 323 74 
Desenzano (after Major)....| .... apie Oe eens ngtite 330 80 























*Circular pits at Oldenburg, Germany, explored by Nehring. 


Humerus.—Although the Anau humerus does not admit of complete measure- 
ment, it is possible to obtain from the dimensions of the distal part a certain com- 
parison with the humeri as these are known to us from diluvial and prehistoric 
localities in Europe. 

These figures show that the humeri of Anau, together with those of the Olden- 
burg-Kreisgruben and the Fallow pony often mentioned by Nehring, hold the 
record for smallness, while Equus przewalskii has, according to Salenski’s measure- 
ments, a somewhat coarser humerus. Equus stenonis appears to agree well with 
Equus przewalsku, and the Roman horse of Vindonissa is notably larger than the 
Anau horse and comes nearest to the horses of Westeregeln and of Cardamone. 

Radius.—As stated before, there exists no complete radius from Anau, but 
the quantity of perfect radii from the Bohemian localities and from Vindonissa 
permit us to make a very instructive comparison. Here again we see clearly that 
Equus caballus pumpellii, the horses of the Kreisgruben, the La Tene horse, and 
those from Stankowitz and Hostomitz are the smallest horses of the whole series, 
the Anau horse being probably the most slender-limbed. The second horse of 
Hostomitz seems to be somewhat larger, and also, according to the skull, to be a 
product of crossing with the large type of horse, as are also, probably, the horses 
of Cardamone and Desenzano and the Roman horses of Vindonissa. The Equus 
przewalskw has a radius approximately of the size of that of Anau, but stouter. 

Carpus.—Of the carpal bones we have from Anau three ossa magna and one 
from Vindonissa. ‘This last surpasses very significantly in size those from Anau. 
On the other hand, the ratio of width to length is throughout the same. 

Metacarpus.—Ever since the exterior of the horse has occupied attention, 
a deep-reaching importance as regards value and race has been ascribed to the 
metacarpus and metatarsus (os du canon of French authors). But Kraemer was 


THE BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. 419 


the first to explain, in a manner as plausible as it was scientific and accurate, the 
cause of the difference of form of these bones. According to him, the slenderness 
or thickness of this bone is traceable back to mechanical effects of use, aided natu- 
rally by nourishment and climate.* According to the view we have already 
developed in our special instance of the Anau horse the increasing slenderness of 
the bones, as the culture-strata grow in height, must be traced back to the increase 
of desert conditions and the use of the animal for rapid work. It is encouraging 
and confirmatory of our separate conceptions that our conclusions so agree, although 
so differently deduced. 

On account of the special importance of this bone I repeat here all its dimen- 
sions in comparison with a series of other horses of European localities. 


Table of dimensions. 






























































Sr 
Length. Width. Diameter. 
ac Alle Deana Great- Exte- cane Me- | Dis- | Prox-| Me- | Dis- Index. 
est. ie eae dian.| tal. | imal. | dian.| tal. 
aera mm. | mm, | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm, | mm. | mm, 

Sag Corre Ne sien cele aucnetsreiars alislleieke’ 228 | 220 47 29 42 Bu 22 32 12.8 

Seas G aPC cine) wie usta ol cess as lhe alone re A Sell] cnn ||| seh cei teal | ac ae 41 sreietan || cs cers 30 5 Oi 

= MMOLE career airs siete yel sy euro eMeucrate ox 3 Sat cad fj eveuave UE fares a1 44 a ae 24 32 Rea 

EL Wain TE Cais ee teiiet eee a sosisargts pists. 0 9 220 nr 44 ar 40 30 crete 28 Tn 
Gross Czernosek (La Téne)......... 198 192 44 27 42 30 at 31 13.6 
Hostomitz (bronze time)........... 200 | IgI 46 29 45 30 28 34 14.5 
Stankowitz (Laylene)ic.= ...ases os 216 | 206 46 30 46 29 21 34 14.0 
COUVTeSa(?) ieee temeiere rs cas serais st atatsies 214 shee 54 34 50 35 1°39 38 "15 8 
CASECHIE CE not Cites Feeds a ke a 216 Rte 48 39 50 32 27 32 18.0 
ouverné neolithic: (?)Ga'. os nena s 217 Sas 50 38 50 32 28 28 Wes 
Cindréer(paleolithic)Mer.cts ie ate) ce- ¢ 219 er 60 42 50 37 20% Vea 19.2 
Fouvent (neolithic)....2..<00 + 2+ 2T7 votes 52 40 50 32 | 27 32 18.4 
Equus przewalskii Salenski......... 215 | 206 48 32 re Cee care ens (eee 14.8 
Equus przewalskii juv. Bern, Krae- 

THOR ache ere at es ae aren ole 2 204 Pues te 25 see LAs ed ot | Male rant e 14.3 
WOLULEEE es BCL Merde testivee h 6 sep cisil sy rites | ope 49 35 | 48 Bg) 1) ae 36 16.0 
Wohontsch a. Biela (neolithic).. ....| 220 | 213 49 31 46 31 27 33 14.0 
Tveitmeritz, A> (neolithic) 33...) «..- 220 mne2 Ts 44 3 47 toy | ae: 32 13 .9 

, 220 | 210 50 4 4 33 25 aa 16.3 
Polutre ss Bele tea gece ier acts terete ce ; Pears 50 3x 7 32 23 aa i<I6 
schiossberg (iron age). fnc9.....%... 2228 | 273 49 34 49 33 AG} 33 Tse 
Vindonissa: 

ATi pPHItneater saves tiga ir saree 226 218 47 30 43 an 21 3I 1342 

Amphitheateti.ctsjaceis era wale 227 OT O 49 32 47 31 ae 35 14.0 

CaStritiniwaraen cerns ii tonite ee 22 Sea 207 50 32 47 aa 23 AG 14.0 

@astriuni acc cle + es cis esa iso 230 | 220 49 30 48 36 22 34 13-4 

CAStritinie nis cciee pert eretn co vereie 220m) 15220 52 32 49 33 23 35 Tad 

CAS TU MEN etree eer mene ee 230 mn ee 2 48 32 49 32 22 35 P34 
Westeregeln, Nehring (diluvial)...... 225 e225 57 41 55 Fae [W ces acareilt et ote 17.4 
Rixdorf, Nehring (diluvial)......... 249 She 59 44 56 fH Palle Seem ketene 17-6 





This comparative table shows distinctly the relation already noticed in the 
bones of the other extremities, that the horse of Anau agrees remarkably well with 
those of the European bronze age and of the later La Tene phase of the iron age. 
It shows, however, further, that among the horses of Solutré there occur adult 





*H. Kraemer, Zur Frage der Knochenstarke der Pferde. Deutsche Landw. Tierzucht, 1904, vu, 
Nos. 28 and 31. 


420 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


remains (most likely young individuals like Equus przewalskii of Bern) which per- 
mit us to suppose a smaller size of this horse than is shown by the other bones; 
still, according to the index these bones are considerably larger than those of Anau 
and of the La Téne time. ‘The horses of Vindonissa are notably larger than any 
of those mentioned, and approach throughout the heavy diluvial horse of Nehring. 
But Equus przewalskii stands, in respect to its metacarpi, in the middle, among the 
La Téne horses of Bohemia. 

The other French subfossil horses resemble the smaller forms of the Solutré 
horse and Equus caballus nehringi of the Schlossberg as well as the Bohemian 
horses of neolithic age. 

Femur.—For the sake of completeness we will add a brief comparison of 
some dimensions of the femora, although we have from Anau only distal ends of 
these bones, and in the specimens from Vindonissa the epiphyses are injured. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 









































Femur. Tibia. 
Diameter Diameter 
Distal (Oo ees ee eee ee Proximal Distal 
width, | Contyle, | condyle, ) Length. |" width. | width, 
Major. Nehring. 
( ze 43 102 ) 
I 50 110 - 
Aniatiss Ge acc oti iees fleets { a7 46 105 r 305 78 63 
(adult : 5 4 : 18 
an ee = §aduit...... I cae. 118) 

Przewalski, Salenski young... 80 oa Teas 325 92 65 
Spandatl . 2c i. «bcs ween eee eect 75 awe 100 311 80 60 
; ( 366 10 
Equus stenonis s...<s4oianeavanes 8 8 OE 5 73 

be : pe (350 99 74 
Cardamoneé ir. cn © tee IOI 60 ers 370 106 82 
Vindonissait. oi eee eee 85 51 112 he 84 ee 
Westeregéelnin. tints. nemeracinrat 108 apie 112 340 103 85 
Sarma oo = (turbary) "eee 5, BB Sets ices 1 Ae Ps - 
Hostomitz 15555 ati sere eee Ve yehe Stee cae 334 80 54 

eee ee ea 


* Epiphysis broken off. 

We see here, too, the above-mentioned relation of the Anau horse to the 
bronze-age horse and to Equus przewalskii; and of the Vindonissa horse to the 
diluvial horse. At the same time, since we have here to do with articulation, it 
is clear that, as stated by Kraemer,* the joints of the slender-limbed horses are 
relatively stouter and broader than those of other horses. This relation appears 
just here, since the lengths of the femora from Anau hardly exceed 300 mm. while 
those from Vindonissa measure 350, those from Westeregeln were about as large, f 
and those from Cardamone as much, indeed, as 414 mm. 

We must also make some remarks in regard to the tzbie, although these were 
considered at length in the first part of my report. The smallest of all here appear 
to be the tibize from Tschontschitz, which the turbary find seems to date from a 
relatively late time, probably in the bronze age. Those from Anau and Spandau 








*D. Landw. Tierzucht, vir Jahrgang, No. 28, p. 327. Tt Nehring, op. cit., p. 134, note 3. 


PLATE 90. 





—— 





Le ee aes Pre 96 F Aw 
BL a | anki Sp eae 


et 





a oA Gy d: e€ 
2 


Comparisons of Metacarpi Medii and Metatarsi Medii, Showing Gracility and Slenderness of Anau Horse. 


Fic. 1. a. Metacarpus from first culture at Anau, showing Fic. 1. g. Metacarpus of a Roman horse of the castrum of 


when compared with European fossil horse on Vindonissa (Switzerland), showing much greater 
right from Solutré only a little more slenderness. size of that animal. 
6. Metacarpus from Solutré. Fic. 2. a. Metatarsus medius of higher strata of second 
c. Metacarpus of La Téne horse from Stankowitz culture at Anau, showing great slenderness. 
(Bohemia). b. Very small metatarsus from La Téne (Switzer- 
d and e. Proximal and distal parts of metacarpi of land). 


Anau horse from top of North Kurgan, showing c. Larger metatarsus from first culture of Anau. 
greater slenderness of bones developed during d. Metatarsus of Eq. przewalskit. 
civilization of the kurgan. e. Metatarsus from Solutré. 
f. Metacarpus of German pony (Eq. caballus nehring?) 7. Metatarsus from Vindonissa, 
Schlossberg. 





PLATE 91. 























2 


Comparisons of Extremity Bones, Showing Gracility and Slenderness of Anau Horse, 


Fic. 1. a. Calecaneus and astragalus from Eq. przewalskti juv., in comparison with the same bones from Anau. 
6. Os naviculare tarsi; c, os cuneiforme; d, os cuboideum, of Eg. przewalskii compared with same bones 


from Anau. 4 
e. Tibia of small Eq. cab. pumpellii from a turbary at Tschontschitz (Bohemia). 


7. Tibia from Anau. g. Tibia from Vindonissa. 
2. Phalanges. a and 6, the three phalanges of Anau horses. c. Same of horse of Vindonissa, d. Same of 


horse of Solutré, 








THE BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. 421 


are about alike. Equus prezewalsku is, according to Salenski’s measurements, 
somewhat larger; the two tibie from Vindonissa, on the other hand, which are 
larger than those of Equus stenonis, are almost equal to those of the horses of 
Cardammone and Westeregeln. 


TARSUS. 


Calcaneus.—My material consists of two calcanei from Anau, one calcaneus 
from Hostomitz (bronze age), one calcaneus of Equus przewalskit juv., one cal- 
caneus from Solutré. While Hensel* finds characteristic features only on the 
processus anterior, Major and Rtitimeyer and Kowalewski name the articular sur- 
face for the cuboideum as the most important. As in the Pliocene horse, so in 
the horse of Anau the articular surface for the cuboideum is remarkably steep, 
in contrast with the horses of Solutré and Hostomitz. Equus przewalskit also does 
not show as steep a position of this facet. The back, narrow part of the cuboid 
joint, which in Equus caballus is often separated from the forward part, forming a 
facet for itself, is connected in one of the Anau horses and in the horses of Solutré 
and Hostomitz in the same manner as in Equus stenonis and Hipparion, while one 
of the calcanei from Anau shows a condition similar to that of the horse. 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 




















: Method of Sal- 
ee eae. enskiand Nehring. 
Calcaneus, tse Greatest 
Ten : Greatest| Least | poste- |Greatest|Greatest 
gth. |Jation of |~ - af ‘ : 
cuboid- | Width. | width. rior | length. | width. 
ae, width. 
(| 105 31 12 10 8 
TATE UR od roe ie Sl oot arar ye ie Bom anor aaa i 100 32 12 aay c es He 
DOLULOm eae ete otetiss ts cisierm aise wicis/ ee 100 33 12 5 6 aaa arnt 
Equus przewalskit .......00...eeeees 92 31 i 4 5 100* 60* 
EL OSLOUIALZ tem eres cen ars Porte cee er cbe tas Tee's co 100 30 Ie 5 4 5 
ES UAL SESTCNO MIS mien steele suere ere atone cate e 108 34 1B Oo 6 a 
ASS neo Pe) aicleors tials of cunt raralale gions, ait 107 35 T2005 Hite 5 
Cardamones. vast eis vere ele cine © hse 112 37 1345 aes 9 Spc gers 
iesslerloéhia ck Stwes oe cys ottspom ys i diates.< 112 ee state Gye) es oe tre 52-54 
GRAVE 5 cee shee Sctals ecctpcs wee wo ss eisai eats Sore aeiete oer 104 Be 
IWiESCETE DEL Ii lercter. i cies cts sve meyiotene ai sll te eters eee ee eri wy er et os re 55 
SS ATIC AUN ae aoe sts sims oe pond namirond te. nuct a Lae ears eset ae EGON gI 38 


























The other articulating surface, for the astragalus, mentioned by Riitimeyer 
on the inner edge of the processus anterior, which latter, according to Major, is 
strikingly small and isolated in the ass and mule, is here large and connected with 
the facet lying above it. On the other hand, in the horse of Solutré it is isolated, 
and in that of Hostomitz extremely narrow but connected. 

The measurements, which were made conformably to those of Major, confirm 
what is said above, and according to them a certain primitive relation must be 
ascribed to the horse of Anau. 

Astragalus.—For the proportions of the astragalus the reader is referred to 
the measurements given on page 395. I repeat here only because as regards 








*R, Hensel, Ueber Hipparion Mediterraneum. Abh. Kaiserl. Akad. d. Wissensch. Berlin, 1860, 


422 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


Major’s index of the position of the facets the horse of Anau ranks very close to 
Equus stenonis and the horse of Solutré. In the following table I give again the 
mean values of this dimension for the different horses: 


ATIOU Bias rae cn te ie eterno terete 26.0 Stenonis, after Major....... 325 
Przewalski-4 meee acters 27:0 Bolted) Joy oie aes baie ees Seal 
Asinus, after Major och <0 nate) CASOMMIONG a tn. ees Relkiery 34.0 
Siberian horse, Tscherski.... 32.0 


In the neck of the astragalus the horses of Anau and of the Bohemian localities 
resemble throughout Equus stenonis and the recent horse. Kowalewski says that 
the cuboidal facet of the astragalus (which in the tridactyl ancestors of the horse 
was useful in transferring the weight of the body to the metatarsus externus) is 
very small in Hipparion and the horses and stands too steep to support the cuboi- 
deum. Moreover, Major has shown that it is still less steep in the horses than in 
Hipparion, but he admits that in Equus stenonis it is steeper in some specimens 
than in others. Among the Anau specimens small differences of this kind can be 
observed, showing that this characteristic is in a preeminent degree dependent on 
the individual use of the limbs. 

Naviculare tarsi—From Anau we have two specimens which were not con- 
sidered in the earlier chapter. For comparison, I have only those of Equus prze- 
walski and of a recent domestic horse. In the Anau horse, the indentation in 
the posterior edge of the naviculare (first mentioned by Kowalewski and of which 
he finds the first trace in Paleotherium medium) is uncommonly pronounced and 
deep, giving the tarsus great strength. In comparing this part of the naviculare 
with that in Equus przewalski we see that this indentation is here more round and 
hollowed out and not provided with so sharp-edged a notch as in the Anau horse. 
I find in the horses of Solutré and Kesslerloch the same condition as in Equus 
przewalsku., 

We know that the posterior edge of the astragalus joint is occupied by two 
projections which border this indentation. In Equus caballus the outer one usually 
projects strongly and is, as already stated by Riitimeyer (p. 11), much more 
strongly developed than in Hipparion. In the Anau horse the outer one projects 
the more; but in contrast with Equus przewalsku and the horse of Solutré, both of 
the Anau specimens show it connected in an almost straight line with the inner 
projection, and not separated by a deep notch as in those horses. Thus Equus 
pumpellw is, in this respect, very similar to Equus stenonis, in which the outer 
projections are described by Major as equal. 

The articulating surfaces for the cuneiforme I and II, which in Equus cabal- 
lus recens are much enlarged transversely, while in Hipparion and Equus stenonis 
the fore-and-aft diameter predominates, show in Equus pumpellii and przewalskii 
the same relation as in Equus stenonis. 

The articulating surfaces for the cuboideum: As Major observes, the center 
of gravity in the tarsus has been steadily moved forward from geological to recent 
time, hence the posterior articulating surfaces diminish in size and the anterior 
surfaces increase. ‘The posterior one of the two existing articulating surfaces is, 
especially in Hipparion, much extended from above down and stands here almost 


THE BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. 423 


erect; in stenonis it still touches the small facet for the calcaneus. In Equus 
przewalsku and Equus pumpellii, on the other hand, this articulating surface reaches 
only half the distance between the points mentioned, and it appears indeed still 
smaller in some modern horses. In the horses of Solutré and the Kesslerloch this 
facet is still larger than in the domestic horse. In the Anau horse the anterior 
facet is relatively small, but always larger than that of Equus przewalskii Pol. 

The absolute sizes of the naviculare, cuneiforme, and cuboideum are shown 
in the following table: 


Table of dimensions (in millimeters). 





Naviculare. Cuneiforme. Cuboideum. 








Thick- | Thick- 


Es : ness of | ness of 
Length. | Width, | Length.) Width. | Length. so otg posterior 


part. part. 

















| 46 38 
PASTE (LR eee ro esas ey) «ch wins, oS were i 44 a6) 41 38 BY 15 19 
PAUUS PYZCWAISRIV 5105 30 4) seas sieie + 3 46 a7 43 42 ay 16 19 
MALE etree wt raha tovele gues sae saya eid oh 49 39 eee Ao 38T 20T 2st 
PeeeeIOHOCH ates. buted ws ss nd eels «. 50-53 | 39-44 | 48-50*| 42-43*| .... mA ee 
AWIESLCLE SEL II ae ets cece ot alas ional lls crotalie sonal ais 62 45 Roe ae ays 
Cardamone (after Major)........... — aa 25 
l 43 245 23 
37 17.5 25 
Equus stenonis (after Major)......... { oe 18 25 
ME OULET MATOS) 055i x orca 6 oso, < owl’, Sine Boe ee Seti 2 fens 15 21 
Breet MItes MATOT) ©). oie soc 8s e's cies * as she ee sees Sates 40.5 22 21 





























* After Hescheler. + After Major. 


Tarsale distale tertiwm (cunetforme).—Here my material is very limited. I 
have only one cuneiforme from Anau, and one of Equus przewalski. Unfortunately 
the posterior edge of the Anau cuneiforme is so injured that we can say nothing in 
regard to the position and shape of the posterior articulation surface. Contrasting 
it with Equus przewalski we notice the greater slenderness of the facet for the 
naviculare. The contraction before the forward facet of the cuboideum is much 
deeper than in the Przewalski horse. Likewise the lateral facets for the cuboi- 
deum and the cuneiforme I and II are much smaller and more elongated, owing to 
the uncommonly strong development of the surfaces of the ligamental attachment 
of the borders. The table indicates also that the Anau horse represents the type 
of high speed more than does Equus przewalskar. 

Cuboideum.—Since the classic investigation of Riitimeyer and Major, the 
cuboideum is regarded as one of the most valuable and characteristic bones of 
the horse. According to Major, the cuboideum of the ass is quite different from 
that of the horse; not only is it much more slender, but the posterior part is con- 
siderably thicker than the anterior; the same may be said in comparing the horse 
of Solutré and Equus stenonis with Equus cabalius. The table on the following 
page shows clearly this relation. 

We see that our horse of Anau is the smallest, and our specimen is a very old 
individual, as is evident from the attachment surfaces for muscles and sinews, 
which can not be said of Equus przewalski1, It seems to me, therefore, that this 





424 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


distinction from the ass, which Major thinks he has found, stands on a very weak 
foundation. ; 

Proximal part of the cuboideum.—Major states that in Hipparion the forward 
part of the articulation surface is similar to the posterior part; that in Equus 
stenonis the narrowest place in the forward part is equal to the widest of the pos- 
terior part; that in the Quaternary horses the forward part has somewhat increased ; 
that in recent horses the posterior articulating surface sometimes disappears and 
the forward one is broadened; and that in the ass both surfaces are very narrow, the 
posterior being the narrower. Judging by Major’s illustrations (plate v1, figs. 26, 
36), our Anau horse resembles an ass in the size of the forward articulating sur- 
face, but in the posterior surface is quite like the Quaternary horse of Cardamone. 
In Equus przewalskii the forward part is wider, the posterior narrower. 

Inner side of the cuboideum.—Here there is nothing to say in opposition to 
Major and the Anau horse is wholly like that of Cardamone. 


Table of dimensions and percentages. 


















































: Equus Equus : : Equus 
Cuboideum. pumpellit. Semen Hipparion. preeuniehaa 
mm. | P.ct. mm. | P. ct. mm. | P.ct. mm. Pct. 
Length of bones Jace awacec sett enter 31 100° | 37.5 | LOO) 1\"30- 5.) 100 ai ar 100 
Longitudinal diameter of facet for metatar- 

Sus Medius ee acenes ores eetenis anne are 8 26 9 24 “4 23 II 35.5 
Transverse diameter of same@-... 0... :.5 cscs 7 23 655 07532 O25 yer 10.5 | 34 
Longitudinal diameter of facet for metatar- 

SUS EXtE@MMuUs...cofeus. .w6 eee es te Ez 55 15 40 17 56 20 64 
‘Transverse diameter of Same... 2.0.20... 06- 7 23 8 ST 3a LOeSaeeat 7 23 
Width  onismallest parted tem era ene 3 a 6 Be : 

; , Equus Recent 
Cuboideum. Solutré. Cardamone. pects haree 
mm. Pet: mm. | P.ct. mm, Pict mm, | P.ct. 
Length of bones... 2.0. se sleet 38 100 45 100 40.5 | 100 40.5 | 100 
Longitudinal diameter of facet for metatar- 

SUS MeECINS:< Lo nie strate wee ote cen ieee 12 BI 14 31 ht. 29 16 39.5 
Transverse diameter of same............... FO. 55 27 12.5) |°2727) | OvS 4 2304) else oneaS 
Longitudinal diameter of facet for metatar- 

SUS EXCETNUS cies cas te eee Gees tee 24 63 25 5 ST 20 50 20.5 | 50 
Transverse diameter of same............... 10 2623 }o21 26-8 | 11 27 1035 0/020 
Widthjon smallest part... pia, eee oan 7 AC 6 8.5 : ~ 5 




















More important is the distal articulation surface of the cuboideum. ‘The small 
joint for the metatarsus medius possessed by Paleotherium minus and Anchitherium, 
but enlarged in the genus Hipparion and in horses, is in the Anau horse uncom- 
monly small, in absolute measurement smaller even than in the ass, and approaches 
wholly in dimensions the Hipparions of Mt. Léberon. This dimension is greater 
in Equus przewalski. Nevertheless, the relative dimensions show that the Anau 
horse stands midway between Equus asinus and Equus stenonis, and that Equus 
przewalskw even surpasses the recent horses in the size of these dimensions. 

While in many recent horses and in Equus przewalsku the forward part of the 
facet for the metatarsus externus is separated from the posterior part, there is no 
breach of continuity in Equus pumpellit nor in the horses of Solutré and Carda-- 
mone. ‘The narrowest place in the articulating surface for metatarsus externus— 


THE BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. A25 


where the forward and back parts come together—is just as much hollowed out 
in the Anau horse as in Equus stenonis, therefore much more deepened than in the 
Quaternary horses and in Equus przewalsku. The Anau horse has, therefore, in 
this respect also, preserved an ancient character. 


Table of dimensions. 





























Length Width. Diameter. 
. Ai Greatest| of ex- : : 
eae ie) ed length. | terior ProXi-| Median | Distal |P'°X!"| Median Distal 
side, | mal part. | part ule part. | part Index. 
part. : wi Dat. ; 
mm, mm, | mm, mm, mm, | mm. mm. | mm. 
( —10 ft. North Kur- : E 
: CANS aoithoe tec onrtene 25 250 40 27 37 3 27 30 10.5 
Anat 4 fee6 fe. North Fur 
Peat. ere. 264 wees Eee 25 38 ae 25 31 9.5 
(| 214 205 41 24 40 3 20 30 rr. 
La Téne, Mus. Bern...... 4| 230 aa 38 23 37 33 ei 58 Paes 
Langugest, Slavian time....| 234 226 40 25 42 30 23 Rhys 10.5 
Schlossberg, irontime...... 237 228 44 28 44 41 28 37 11.8 
Spandau, bronze time...... 237 229 42 25 40 soy A bya he ie 10.6 
Gross Czernosek, La Téne...} 238 230 42 28 42 34 25 33 122 
Vindonissa castrum........ 242 235 47 31 46 42 26 34 T2252 
Gross Czernosek, Lausitz....| 246 238 46 30 45 38 27 52 11.8 
Schlossberg, large breed....| 256 250 44 30 45 40 29 ay T2326 
Equus przewalski juv., Bern ga! 250 46 25 44 39 23 ag 9.0 
es S| 25 252 50 35 51 44 32 35 Tas 
Solutré paleolithic . cack ‘| 258 247 56 ae 30 | 44 aa 33 igis 
Petersinsel, bronze time....| 259 250 45 27 41 27) 23 32 10.4 
Vindonissa circus.......... 260 253 48 30 47 40 27 34 Tin 
Equus przewalskii Salenski..| 262 252 49 31 47 rk piers ene 1 dats! 
Kesslerloch, paleolithic, after 
PICCCHOICL To af Kr ee tats | hae ees Peek ee IGOR SM x as ana sibechs Rare 
Hostomitz, iron time.......| 268 260 45 31 48 42 31 36 Rin 
Gross Czernosek, neolithic 
UEWTS(S 4S ves dana te OGG oa Gane: 273 265 50 29 47 43 29 38 10.6 
Schlossberg, large breed....| 274 260 50 aa 47 43 30 38 12,0 
Waincionissa Circus... ......-. 273 261 49 30 49 43 33 36 10.9 
Westeregeln, diluvial horse, 
piter- Nehring? a..-.2..- 281 270 56 37 Coe Mere ais oes oe 
Remagen, diluvial horse, 
aster. Nehring’); i550. 285 ae 60 39 Ly le Bese Bete eat i426 





























With respect not only to the metacarpi, but also to the metatarsi, the limbs of 
the horse of Anau appear remarkably slender and much more gracile than in the 
horse of La Téne and of Schlossberg. The indices show this very clearly; still, it 
must be remarked that the horse of Solutré, according to the metatarsi before me, 
is not nearly so thick-footed as the diluvial horse of Westeregeln and some of the 
Roman horses from Vindonissa. 

Phalanges.—The abundant quantity of phalanges before me from the North 
Kurgan at Anau was sufficiently considered in the earlier chapter; therefore, I 
will give here only a comparison of the mean of all of the 29 Anau phalanges with 
those of the most important European horses. 

In respect to their index of width the phalanges of the Anau horse are uncom- 
monly typical. No other horse has an index of 2.8; even the La Tene horse is 
far from approaching it. Jt 7s just in this uncommon slenderness of phalanx I that 
I see the main evidence of desert life and of training for speed, since the Przewalski 
horse (3.7), and even the Turkestan horse of Nehring (3.9) show the next indices. 








426 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


Table of dimensions. 








Phalanx I. 








F.C i ich) On ee rer a a a orth a Mae ten, SORA eis inc eee 
La Tene, after Marek 5. oii. « arsteticincccrecste meee smnenttet ates eeeeeetets 
Gross Czernosek;, La Téne-time 5.0.1.5 «sankenenrnnieney catia ernie 
Lignitz, neolithic. .% a wt, cursis' cee alas -kte dietat iapene Pn ote ee neem 
Spandaty bronze ave. «tar, eqs ate ulcreratate a pero iataenenah eet taste 
Kesslerloch, paleolithic, Hescheler........ Wn cFice.(oisiarssme eee Bie eR Lo 
Solwtee 2s 25 eee VE ah, eis CA din arses evi eens ents eee 
Vind Onissas sors ceisia dios ot ein ees ethene arene eee eee 
Briesen, Marcomannian times. cscs cinta nuisie sti eet eae ee 
Westeregeln! after Nehring n25--: cou or» cotati iis sue hae eee 
PFZeEwalBkt MOLSGs in ssc.ave fo ye ie Mayes altars: fate re Giniig ee ete eiraee ene 
Turkestan horse; alter Nehring «2.3. Sues Pea anaes yes nee 288 








WWARAAR, PARWDN 











The variations in phalanx II can not be called particularly great. For the 
La Téne horse of Bohemia I find a length of 41 to 44 mm., with a width of 39 to 41 
mm.; in the Anau horse the corresponding dimensions were 37 to 42 and 31 to 40 
mm.; in the horses of Vindonissa, on the other hand, I find 42 to 45 mm. for length 
and 46 to 52 mm. for width; likewise for the Solutré horses 42 to 46 mm. for length, 
and 45 to 50 mm. for width. In the horses of Westeregeln these measurements 
may have been about 50 to 55 mm. ‘Thus here we see again how narrow is the 
phalanx II of the Anau horse and how wide those of the horses of Vindonissa, 
Westeregeln and Solutré. 

Concerning phalanx III it is to be remarked that the conditions are similar. 


CALCULATED SIZES OF THE HORSES. 
As final characteristic we may here once more tabulate the calculated abso- 
lute height of the horses (withers-height). 


cm, 
Diluvial horse, Westeregeln, after Nehring.................... 155 
Equus przewalskit, 10 years old, stallion, after Grum-Grshimailo.. .153 


Diltuvial horse; Rema vens osc eiien a ee een ee aie oe eee 151 
Siberian horse, Yana River, after Tscherski. 022. ,.a..05.<sea om 146 
Schlossbers Garge. breed). ic:2fi'sen oc cna etna ae eae 146 
Vindonissa sie. ciee cine ees ne eek eeahele bieteace ieee tere pe Pee Reena 145 
La, Téne, after Marek 33 i-./s-c00.5 om as, c ecm ates ap ere tiene 141 
Auvérnier; after’ Marek v sea te oxstis ones sale s bie sete eoenheeiere 138 
ANAU; Equus caballus pum pellet i ivis aia ns soils e'oee aretern le -taveisnal ore aa 137 
Ziel: Canal (bronze tinte). cscs else cisne tele eta richie a clei te ate ey 136 
Equus przewalskit, adult stallion, after Salenski................. 128 
Solutré, after: Gaillard): 23 <an. bac pee ee ee een 125 
Equus przewalski, young mare of Tsarski-selo, after Salenski..... 120 
Schlossberg, smiall breed «7... <<: ae sas eaten ee le ee eee 118 


No direct measurements have been made of the withers-height of Equus 
przewalsku, except on the young mare; in the other instances only the height of 
the croup has been measured. But Salenski gives for the same mare the croup- 
height of 116 cm., that is, 4 cm. less than the measured withers-height; I have, 
therefore, calculated on this basis an approximative withers-height for the two 
stallions, for which we had already the croup-heights of 147 and 124 cm. respec- 
tively. In doing this I consider that a centimeter can make little difference if 
we wish only to learn the approximate ranking of the horses among themselves, 


CONCLUSIONS. 427 


CONCLUSIONS. 


To present, free from subjective influence, not only the methods of investi- 
gation, but also the inferences; that is, to build objectively and scientifically, I 
apply here the known system of points, thus avoiding bias by some pronounced 
characteristic and premature or wrong conclusions through neglect of other impor- 
tant points. The plan is as follows: The questions which are of especial interest 
are listed and each one considered with regard to each characteristic treated in this 
investigation. Where there is absolute agreement, the highest degree of positive 
answer to the question, a value of 10 points is assigned, which decreases by units 
to o for a directly negative answer. Adding the points obtained and dividing by 
the number of answers, the result is an objective answer to the question and as 
accurate as the accidents of the find and a comparison of the material investigated 
will permit. The questions which we will here present are eight in number. 


1. How does the horse of Anau agree with that of the late neolithic and bronze 
ages and the La Téne time, with the exception of the Schlossberg horse? 
2. How does the Anau horse agree with those of Solutré, Kesslerloch and of 
the paleolithic and early-neolithic localities of Italy and France? 
3. How does the horse of Vindonissa compare with these? 
4. What relation do these paleolithic and neolithic horses bear to those of 
Westeregeln and Thiede of the North German lowland? 
. How does the Anau horse agree with Equus przewalskw Poljakoff? 
. How do the above-mentioned horses of Solutré, etc., stand in relation to 
Equus przewalskit. | 
7. How do the Bronze and La Téne horses stand in relation to the Anau horse? 
8. How does the horse of Anau compare with that of the Schlossberg? 


nw 


The answers yield the following: 















































Question— 

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 
Powe DCTIELELON greretn persion cine oy eter ecco st ore Gere) ose 5 5 5 5 8 4 8 5 
ee eM AA INCICER ag. epee « Fin SR nie ies ey 8 ins 4 9 Lidl Se Woda: 
Bee OCA Pll a Sey terete cess aus ey eh coorona, saretiwrsts aloes “ecaw’s 6 Se spedste lhe atch: prey) |lbsacet 6 
MMPEVUITICTUSH raeiers tacts cue sretans oi ein cohacet ate ede 6 ce 8 Als oer 7 sais 

MER ACIS ear Mr creteltesee bores a eetrelese.s sberot seating ihre 8 jas 10 6 re tel hte 6 
pMLELAGCAT DUS rer ronettagerer sie tet ois) s, sie) eYetere oases 8 4 9 8 7 i LO 8 4 
Fic. JSON ES Pais er CRO AE ONO NOS RIOR no One 10 5 5 9 oh 6 8 Ser 
iy FNS sen Su cee eran fers area ie ea ome 9 2 10 8 Sone 6 8 Som 
Queer saliiaremmewe st totecyacetoushoterarcca cus se a gemeonedevers ones 6 108 8 9 7 gta ta Nie ae 
NEVE CLATATSUS ice cite totes aietohatanens trscshe. a e)'oi32 5460s 9 4 10 7 a 6 10 9 
itis MOEN Os AO trae oe Recah cor pa ini oe 8 4 9 8 Soran S 8 ee 
PM LLC ree aera orc tehe catered olaccperbete x ayers rails soaker 10 9 8 7 9 |-8 8 8 
PCOtAls wee ac eemihs costae ee eo e 87 42 66 78 74 55 79 32 
Resulting answet secs... daa. StOm le Secu Sean pals ieee | 6238. 19.9 6.4 








These results are, therefore, to be expressed in the following manner: 

1. From our foregoing investigation it follows with the greatest certainty 
that the Roman horse of Vindonissa was a horse of the size and shape of those of 
Solutré, Kesslerloch, Cardamone, Arezzo, Devenzano, etc., and it was apparently 
closely related to these animals, since only very slight osteological differences can 
be recognized. 


428 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


2. With equal certainty it follows that the Anau horse is ancestrally closely 
related to the Equus przewalski Poljakoff. The difference is chiefly in the more 
slender form of the limbs of the Anau horse. _ 

3. With similar certainty it is ascertained that the Anau horse is closely con- 
nected with the small horse which appears on the scene in Europe in the late- 
neolithic and bronze ages and in the La Téne period, and has a wide distribution. 

4. As a consequence, it is probable that the Przewalski horse stands, presum- 
ably through the Anau horse, in close relationship with that of La Tene, etc. 

5. The relationship and similarity, however, of the southern, Italian, French, and 
Swiss paleolithic and early-neolithic horses to the North German horse are slighter, 
chiefly because of the greater size and the stouter, heavier build of the latter. 

6. Thus the horses of Solutré, etc., notwithstanding their ancestral relation- 
ship, stand more distantly removed from Equus przewalsku than from the North 
German diluvial horse, naturally because of their geographical distribution. 

7. The horses of the Schlossberg, especially on account of their stouter limbs, 
do not stand in as close a relationship to the Anau horse as do the La Téne horses. 

8. The horse of Anau agrees still less with that of Solutré and Kesslerloch, and 
though there exists a resemblance this is much slighter than to Equus przewalskit. 

These, therefore, are the theses on which we will now base our conclusions. 


THE TERTIARY HORSES OF EUROPE. 


If, following the assertion of the always cautious Tscherski, we look upon 
Equus stenonis Cocchi as the precursor of the diluvial horse of Southern Europe, 
which agrees on one side with the diluvial horse of Siberia, and on the other side 
with that of Remagen and Westeregeln (that is, with Equus caballus fossilis robustus 
seu germanicus Nehring); and if we consider the other varieties of diluvial horses: 
Equus speleus, varieties A and B, and Equus plicidens Owen, Equus piscinensts 
Gervais, Equus quaggoides F. Major (formerly called intermedius), Equus stenonis 
affinis Woldrich and Equus quaggoides affinis of the same author,* all of which will 
perhaps disappear some day, before a more far-seeing and more scientific criticism, 
based on more abundant and better preserved material, we must assume the exist- 
ence during Pliocene and Pleistocene times, on the whole Eurasiatic continent 
of only one type of wild horse, which without doubt was differentiated into many 
local varieties or species, according to hairiness and color, size and shape, which 
(and I emphasize this) we can not determine with certainty by osteological and 
paleontological methods. As Major already insists, Equus stenonis Cocchi agreed 
absolutely in type with the horses of the uppermost Miocene of the Sivalik Hills 
and Narbada Valley of India—Equus sivalensis and namadicus Falconer and Caut- 
ley. It can, therefore, be assumed at once that Equus przewalskw Poljakoff stands 
as the last representative of that Tertiary and Quaternary horse, although Salenski 
would await more abundant data concerning Equus przewalskii before reaching 
such a conclusion. I hardly believe that, reasoning from osteological data, and 
this is here the only applicable method, more can ever be said than we have here 
indicated. Notwithstanding conclusion No. 6, which does not exclude it, I would 
state that Equus przewalskii, in the examples published by Salenski and Noack, 








_ *Woldrich, Beitrage z. Fauna d. Breccien u. a. Diluvialgebilde Oesterreichs, etc. Jahrb. k. k. Geolog. 
Reichsanstalt, Wien, 1882, Bd. 32, pp. 435-470. 


CONCLUSIONS. 429 


harmonizes best with the diluvial horse of Solutré, while the larger animal, pub- 
lished by Grum-Grshimailo, inclines rather towards the Siberian diluvial horses of 
Tscherski and those of Nehring, both of which lived on succulent pastures of the 
loess-steppes. Indeed I state decidedly that, from among a somewhat compre- 
hensive collection of bones from Solutré, one can choose at pleasure bones wholly 
identical with those of specimens of Equus przewalskii. 

The disappearance of the tundras and loess-steppes of North Germany, as 
Nehring particularizes, caused the disappearance of at least the greater part of 
the wild horses, while those that remained had henceforth to adapt themselves to 
forest life. After this change we find, in the paleolithic and neolithic localities, 
remains of horses which, without having lost the broad, strong forms of the diluvial 
horse, show a diminution in size of the race. I recall here the metacarpi and meta- 
tarsi of the Bohemian localities (Wohontsch and Leitmeritz) and of the French 
(Couvres, Curchy, Louverné, Cindré, Fouvent). Not until the latest neolithic age, 
the copper and bronze stages of the bronze age, and the iron time, do we meet 
with the characteristic slender bones of the horse in the Bohemian as well as in 
the Swiss, French, and German (Spandau) localities. As much as the horses of 
Wohontsch, Leitmeritz, Cindré, Fouvent, etc., agree with the Schlossberg horse 
of the ancient Germans, so much do the bones of the animals of this new La 
Tene race resemble those of the horse of Anau, or Equus caballus pumpellii. 

In Anau, however, before the founding of the Anau culture, that is, during 
the paleolithic or latest early-neolithic culture of Europe, a horse lived on the 
loess-steppes, as shown by R. Pumpelly,* probably the same horse as that described. 
But we see how, during the existence of the two North Kurgan cultures at Anau, 
it became gradually more gracile and slender-limbed. The growing desert of 
Transcaspia, acting through changing nourishment and especially through the 
mechanical action of increased motion and adaptation to oasis life—as in all desert 
animals—created the extremely slender-limbed horse, which so preeminently 
embodies in its limbs Frank’s Oriental race. 

Should not importance be conceded in Europe, too, to the climatic and physio- 
graphic conditions which had such deep-reaching influence in Anau? Do we not 
see the action of fundamental climatic and physiographic conditions in the fact 
that the home of the modern heaviest horses is the whole of the North German, 
Belgian, northern French, and English lowlands not very far from the sea; and 
that,except in some more southern localities with deep rich soil and extensive farm- 
ing (Lombardy) nowhere else in the world have they succeeded in producing a 
heavy horse? I certainly believe it. The natural surroundings that condition 
the growth of horses and of their bones were active then as now. 

After the eminent investigations of Kraemer on the hollow bones of the horse, 
I have become convinced that the small-boned horse of the bronze age and La Tene 
time could not have been formed in the boundless primeval forests that grew up 
in Europe after the disappearance of the steppe vegetation, for we know that just 
these physiographic changes, by restricting the freedom of motion, thicken the 
extremities. Hence, it follows necessarily that this small, slender-limbed horse 
must have been zmported. But whence? 





*Pumpelly, Raphael, Interdependent Evolution of Oases and Civilizations, Presidential Address 
before the Geol. Soc. of America, 1905. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 17, pp. 55, 56. 


430 THE HORSE OF ANAU IN ITS VARIOUS RELATIONS. 


Here we are enlightened by our thesis 3, which points out the close family 
connection with the horse of Anau. ‘The horse of the bronze age and iron age of 
Europe must have been imported directly or indirectly from Anau. Interesting 
and confirmatory is the appearance of the shepherd-dog, Canis matris optime, 
in the finds of the same ages in Bohemia and of Europe in general—the dog of 
whose occurrence in Anau we have spoken in an earlier chapter. The people who 
brought the horse of the bronze age to Europe were undoubtedly accompanied 
by the shepherd-dog. Therefore, I no longer -hesitate to give to the horse of the 
bronze age and early iron time of Europe the name that is its due, Equus caballus 
pumpellir. 

Coming now to Equus caballus nehringt, the small, stout horse of the ancient 
Germans, our thesis 7 proves that its agreement with the Anau horse is not very 
marked, less soindeed than that of Equus caballus pum pellii with the horse of Solutré, 
etc. I believe also that, considering the experiences of modern breeders in crossing 
Oriental and Occidental blood, we can assume that we have here not a cross of 
the German horse with that of the Gauls, that is, with Equus caballus pumpellit, 
for otherwise the Oriental blood would have struck through and have found 
expression in gracile bones, of which we have evidence only in the configuration 
of Gallic horses, concerning which Cesar says (Bell. Gall., 1v, 2) that they were 
considered to be better than those of the Germans, since they were improved by 
costly, imported horses of noble breed. This improvement probably consisted 
in an increase in size. At least the Roman horses of Vindonissa point in that 
direction, for, as pointed out by Kraemer,* we find in Vindonissa a larger horse 
than those of the ancient Germans and Helveto-Gauls. It is found both in the 
amphitheater—where it might have been wild—and in very great numbers in the 
talus of refuse below the castrum, where it may well represent the remains of the 
horse of the Roman cavalry. The bones of this horse of the size of that of Carda- 
mone, Arezzo, Devenzano, and of the larger ones of Solutré, point, through their 
texture and relative slenderness, to an admixture of foreign blood; indeed the 
occurrence of a series of small bones shows the contemporaneous presence of the 
bronze-age horse—Equus caballus pumpellit. It seems, then, very probable that 
it is this horse that was used by the Gauls in their ennobling experiments, for that 
the Romans could have brought it with the legions from Italy to Vindonissa is 
shown by the fact that camels too were used in the amphitheater, whose origin 
can not possibly be sought in Helvetia. Cesar says (Bell. Gall., vir, 65) that he 
gave Roman horses—the best he had—to his German soldiers, who were good 
riders but had bad horses. 

The Equus caballus nehringi must be regarded as the autochthonous forest 
type of the wild horse, originating in the primeval forests of Germany; surviving 
from the previous steppe-conditions, and becoming stunted in the forest period, 
to be at last, under the coercion and privations of severe winter life in the forest, 
brought by man under domestication, as was the Anau horse through the growth 
of desert conditions. I have already spoken in some detail? of the manner in 








* Die Haustierfunde von Vindonissa, pp. 264-266. 
}Tierzucht, Tierkult und Kulturgeschichte. Vortrag. Abstract in Neue Ziiricher Zeitung, Feb., 1907. 


CONCLUSIONS. A31 


which I imagine this domestication to have been brought about and I shail treat 
of it again later. 

That this horse did not descend from the Anau horse, which was trained for 
speed, is already shown in the remarks of Cesar (Bell. Gall., rv, 2), Tacitus (German., 
6), and Appianus (d.r. Celt., 3), that the native horses, which were badly shaped, 
not well-set and not fast, but of great powers of endurance through daily strain, 
and in emergencies contented with the bark of trees, were nevertheless preferred 
by the Germans to those imported. 

Already Modi* has said that speed was the characteristic in a horse that 
impressed most an ancient Iranian. He, therefore, in common with his Aryan broth- 
ers, named this swiftest of the animals ‘‘aspa’’ from the old Aryan root ‘“‘ac¢’’ (to 
go rapidly). The word means one who goes rapidly. It seems that the speed of 
the horse was the cause which connected horse-racing with the festivals in honor 
of Mithras, the god of light. The primitive ancient Iranian, being much exposed 
to influences of Nature and coming into greater contact with Nature, began to 
clothe the greatest of Nature’s objects with the ideas most common to him on the 
surface of the earth. Just as he saw his swift horse cover long distances in a 
short time, he saw the sun go over the immense vault of heaven in a short time. 
So he called the sun, in his Avesta, by the name of “ Aurvat-aspa’’—the swift- 
horsed. 


Equus caballus fossilis Riitimeyer (its recent form is Equus przewalskii) 





Equus caballus robustus Nehring Equus caballus|pumpellii Duerst Equus caballus nehringi Duerst 
(the type of the steppes) (the type of the desert) (the type of the woods) 
Indian and Ancient Iranian and Bronze age horse 

Chinese horses Babylonian horses of Europe Celtic pony 








Hallstatt horse 
of Europe Arabian 


Persian horses Egyptian Modern pony breeds 
Greek and 
Roman horses 
Turkish 
Berber Sardinian, 
Corsican horse, 
horses of la Camargue, _ 
Frioul, etc, 


Andalusian horse Thoroushbred 
English race-horse 


Thus, then, is the horse of Anau the first fleet, the first desert, the first oriental 
domestic horse; and his genealogy, as well as his connection with the other Euro- 
pean horses is shown instructively in the above diagram. 





*Modi, Jivanji Jamshedji, The horse in Ancient Iran. Journ. Anthropolog. Soc. Bombay, vol. Iv, 
No. 1, p. 5, 1895. 





a gi eee 
vs a tie 9 ae 


fo 


CHAPTER XX.—CONCLUDING REMARKS. 





We have reached the end of our discussion, in which we have examined meth- 
odically and objectively the fragmentary remains which the cookery and the teeth 
of the ancient Anau-li have allowed to descend to our times.. In considering each 
animal we have drawn our conclusions with all possible moderation in order that 
they may stand the test of future discoveries. We have kept a firm rein on our 
imagination, which might be easily excited by contact with the primitive remains 
of so remotely ancient a culture in a region which one is accustomed to look upon 
as the cradle of the human race. It was a saying of my honored teacher, Albert 
Gaudry, that the eye and the spirit of a poet were essential to the paleontologist. 
Perhaps, then, I may be permitted to review the history of the domesticated 
animals of ancient Anau and clothe them in the dress of a comparative representa- 
tion of the breeding of animals at the present day in Central Asia. 

The modern stock-raising of Transcaspia* is carried on principally in a nomadic 
manner, partly by natives who live as nomads throughout the whole year, and 
partly by those who also cultivate the soil, moving their herds on to the steppe 
only after the harvest. 

In consequence of the hot climate the grass of the steppes begins to dry up 
in the second half of April, only the kolutschka, which is liked by the camels, and 
similar deep-rooted plants remaining. The dried steppe is exposed to fires, 
which often devastate immense areas. Besides this, the pasturing is often limited 
by the prevailing lack of water. Rivers are almost wholly wanting; even wells 
are rare, and then, for the most part, very deep and often yielding only bad water. 
In this respect the sand deserts are better off than the loess-steppes, since in the 
depressions between the dunes it is not unusual to find good water at a slight 
depth below the surface, especially in those places where the desert borders on 
the lower part of the oases. These places form the most desirable pasturage in 
midsummer and winter. 

However, the grazing areas of Turkestan, taken in the aggregate, are so 
large that even at the present time stock-raising forms a very important part of 
the industry of the land. The official statistics estimate the number of animals 
on the first of January, 1903: 


LOT SOS aie er aus. cha steer evetcee si sis°o-e! < TA2, 285" OUCED eas ctee cas sae s sellers 2,948,118 
GATIIOIS, Seceha ctoys eco Gi tgnivtay al seston BLA OA Oia CrOMlS we steakee es revels Wels tera lols one 318,360 
CAUCE O meee sich shs tenet cat tere weet cunt 27 OOO se ASSES ares sem see iereh riety sieve ara eee) 


In all probability these figures are far below the truth. They give, however, 
a good picture of the relative abundance of the different animals. 

By far the most important occupation is that of sheep-breeding, which is 
best adapted to the utilization of the scanty pasturage. 





*Cf. Auhagen, Die Landwirtschaft in Transkaspien. Berlin, 1905. 


A34 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


The breeding of camels, in the domestic economy of the Turkomans, furnishes 
principally milk and wool; the flesh is not willingly eaten. The principal use of 
the camel is for the transportation of goods, but among agricultural natives it 
aids also in field-work. | 

The breeding of asses stands in connection with that of the camel, since in 
the shorter journeys the leader of the caravan is always mounted upon an ass, 
whose short trot adapts it to the pace of the train. 

The breeding of horses lies mostly in the hands of the Kirghiz of the Man- 
ghishlak district. ‘Their small animals, gifted with great powers of endurance, 
are kept on the steppe in herds through the whole year and form among these 
people an important object of commerce. The Turkoman, on the other hand, 
breeds rather for his own use than for sale. The Turkoman horse is also much 
taller and more noble than that of the Kirghiz and, therefore, requires more careful 
treatment. 





Fig. 492.—Natives Mounted on Cattle and Horses. From the Badminton Magazine. 


Under the conditions in which the Turkomans formerly lived the possession 
of an enduring fast horse was of great importance, for on it depended the success 
of the alamans or the slave-hunting raids in Persia. Since the Russian conquest 
put an end to this, horse-breeding has fallen to a great extent. It is preserved 
only from complete decay by the passionate love of the Turkoman for very fast 
riding and for organized races. 

The least position in the animal industries of Transcaspia is occupied by cattle- 
breeding, which under the existing climatic conditions is not adapted to the 
nomadic life. In the agricultural oases, also, cattle are bred only to a small extent, 
and principally to produce work-animals (fig. 492). The use of beef is avoided 
by the Mohammedans. ‘The care extended to the cattle is most defective. It is 
only in winters abounding in snow that they receive sufficient fodder to barely pro- 
tect them from starvation. At other times they are dependent wholly upon the 


CONCLUDING REMARKS. 435 


scanty pasturage. It is no wonder, therefore, that the Turkoman cattle are 
unusually small and yield very little milk. How entirely different from the animal 
breeding of to-day in that region was that which the bone-remains of ancient 
Anau indicate! 

At the time when the lowest layers of the North Kurgan at Anau were formed 
man lived in this region entirely without domestic animals. The mighty wild ox 
(Bos namadicus Falconer & Cautley), and the small wild horse—possibly in the 
form that Wilckens thought he discovered among the finds of Maragha in Persia, 
or in that of Equus przewalskui—roamed on the steppes and the oases of the Kara 
Kum desert and sought shelter in the forest which probably then occupied the 
valleys and slopes of the Kopet Dagh. There lived, too, the large-horned wild 
sheep (Ovis vigner arkal Lydekker) and the gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa Guel- 
denstedt). | 

From the absence of all stone weapons in the oldest period, we may conclude 
that man lived on a friendly footing with these animals and that he could gain 
possession of them only by depriving the wolves of their prey or by the use of 
fire-hardened wooden weapons. The absence of weapons among the primitive 
Anau-li presents an actual condition such as that which forms the basis of the very 
plausible theory of the domestication advanced by R. Mucke.* It would be guess- 
work to attempt to picture the method of domestication, and to assume with 
Mucke that the wild horse, the wild sheep, and the wild ox voluntarily (or compelled 
by the necessity of food from outside the oasis) approached human dwellings to 
graze on the weeds and other plants and so were gradually brought into compan- 
ionship with man, who then assumed the care of their nourishment. We know 
only that after the accumulation of the lowest 10 feet of the strata in the North 
Kurgan this same ox occurs in an almost equally large, but certainly a domesti- 
cated form, becoming more and more frequent in the higher strata, when the horse 
and the sheep also pass over into the domesticated condition. It seems probable, 
however, that little use was made of the milk of the cattle and that they were 
used for riding and as working animals, as is the case to-day. 

In the —8-foot layer, 7. e., 12 feet from the bottom, there appears the pig, 
of which we had no trace in the lower layers. Was it a domesticated pig or the 
wild Sus vittatus? ‘This can not be determined with certainty. In any event it 
was the same animal, and the breeding of swine was actively followed by the 
Anau-li into the metal period, whereas at present it is entirely wanting among the 
Mohammedan population. 

In this remote period also the breeding of sheep, which to-day forms the 
principal part of the Turkoman’s animal industry, began to be developed. The 
first remains of the domesticated sheep that we find point to an unusually heavy 
and stout-horned form, which, in the earlier layers, is very closely related to the 
wild sheep of the Kopet Dagh. Gradually the horns of this sheep became smaller 
and smaller and there arose that form which has-been designated as ‘‘turbary 








*R. Mucke, Urgeschichte des Ackerbaues u. der Viehzucht. Greifswald, 1898. 


436 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


sheep.”” With the metal period there appear hornless sheep; but whether this 
was a new race which was imported with the metals can not be determined with 
absolute certainty. The long-tailed sheep living to-day in the Anau district is not 
always horned. At all events, the breeding of sheep began very early and increased 
as long as we were able to follow it. 

Connected with this breeding is the appearance of the shepherd-dog (Canis 
jamiliaris matris optime) during this second culture. It was possibly derived 
from the small Russian wild dog (Canis poutiatini of Studer) or from the dingo. 
In Europe this form of dog occurs first in the bronze age, but very much later 
than in Anau. 

Thus the animal industry of Anau shows, in the second half of the first culture 
period, a very considerable breeding of cattle and horses; a less-developed, because 
just beginning, breeding of sheep; and a still less-developed breeding of swine. 

The second culture of the North Kurgan, however, shows a shifting of the 
conditions. New domesticated races appear suddenly, pointing to external com- 
munications, either as a result of hostile immigration or of friendly exchange. 
There is still represented the ox—which through bad nourishment has diminished 
in size—as well as the horse, the sheep, and the swine, but now there appear among 
the herds of the Anau-li the high-legged, long-necked camel, the hornless sheep, and 
the short-horned goat. 

During this period the breeding of sheep and swine has increased while that 
of the horses is unchanged, and that of the cattle has diminished. This is probably 
due to the fact that the newly imported camel, under changed climatic conditions, 
was better adapted to, and performed more contentedly, the duties of milk and 
work animal. The animal industry of the region of Anau at this period seems to 
approach more closely to the character of that of modern Turkestan, especially 
when one considers that in the course of centuries, under the influence of the 
changed religious observances, the breeding of swine and cattle has been still more 
suppressed. 

The cattle industry of the eneolithic or first culture of Anau was, however, 
different from that of to-day. The climate, too, was probably not as unfavor- 
able as it now is. The animal industry of the second culture or first copper age 
approaches modern conditions and the races of domestic animals have very likely 
remained the same. The paralleling of these living races with the subfossil remains 
and their exact comparison can not be undertaken in this memoir because of the 
lack of material, but it is to be hoped that it will be made possible through a con- 
tinuation of the study of bone remains from Turkestan. 

Mucke* in his theory of domestication contends that domestication could not 
have been accomplished by a people in the hunting stage, but only by a primitive 
people who did not make use of weapons against the animals. This would agree 
quite well with the conditions at Anau. If, however, we do not consider the Anau-li 
unqualifiedly as the direct domesticators and breeders of the domestic animals, 
this is because, according to Mucke, the essential basis of breeding is the possession 











*Mucke, J. R., Urgeschichte d. Ackerbaues u. d. Viehzucht, p. 256. Greifswald, 1898. 


CONCLUDING REMARKS. 437 


of inclosures. Mucke assumes, further, that in primeval times breeders of cattle 
and cultivators of the soil lived separately, but that gradually there occurred 
warfare and amalgamations in which the restless nomadic cattle-breeders became 
the representatives of civilization and progress. 

In starting from this hypothesis, we are met with the question whether the 
Anau-li of the oldest culture-strata were already cultivators of the soil and found 
themselves under the necessity of using and regulating the watercourses of the 
Kopet Dagh; and whether the need of a larger working force led to the founding 
of some kind of polity, as happened on a larger and more civilized scale in the 
control of the inundations of the Euphrates and of the Nile. I infer from the com- 
munications of Professor Pumpelly that a decisive answer to the latter part of this 
question is not yet possible, but that they were already agriculturists who, accord- 
ing to Professor Schellenberg’s determinations, raised wheat and two-eared barley. 
Since they were clearly cultivators of the soil, we are, according to Mucke, not 
justified in assuming that the Anau-li were the people who first effected the domesti- 
cation, however plausible and probable this seems from the bones found in the 
culture-strata. 

One might, however, admit that a tribe of real nomadic cattle-breeders— 
who, like the modern Turkoman or Kirghiz, lived in round kibitkas or yurts—may 
have domesticated the wild animals living in the neighborhood of Anau, and that 
the settled agricultural Anau-li obtained the domesticated animals from the nomads 
and continued the breeding. 

It is clear that these unknown cattle-breeders did not possess stone weapons, 
since these would have been adopted by the Anau-li, who did not possess arrow- 
points or spear-heads of stone, nor stone axes. Therefore, these cattle-breeders, 
even if, according to Mucke’s theory, they were a separate people, could not have 
come to Anau from any wider culture-sphere than that of Western Turkestan and 
the Iranian highlands, which, according to Professor Pumpelly, was so sharply 
limited and shut off from the rest of the world. 

But a closer consideration of Mucke’s hypothesis seems to show an important 
contradiction: Mucke insists that a hunting people could never become cattle- 
breeders, and we must admit after his own explanation of the process of domestica- 
tion that the people who domesticated the ruminants must have cultivated the 
soil. Mucke says that the wild animals, in want of food, came spontaneously to 
the round dwellings of the men. Therefore, these people must have cultivated 
plants and harvested them; for ruminants like the ox and sheep would not, like 
dogs, be attracted by meat or other products of a hunting or fishing life. Con- 
sequently, the agricultural state of human development must also have preceded 
the state of cattle-breeders, but through the accomplished domestication of rumi- 
nants men obtained freedom of motion for traveling with cattle after good pasture 
and commenced a nomadic life. This must be the real explanation of the origin 
of the wandering peoples, which Mucke can not explain, and he consequently con- 
siders a priort that nomadic peoples were nomads before the domestication of cattle. 
Among the Turkomans of to-day occur also cultivators of the soil and breeders 


438 ANIMAI, REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


of cattle designated as Tschomru and Tshorwa, who intermarry and whose children 
choose either the life of nomads or of farmers. 

If breeders of cattle or cultivators of the soil lived separated in (tines 
times, it is certain that there was no opportunity to adopt a nomadic life unless 
animals who supplied food had already been domesticated. Consequently, the 
first domestication of cattle must have been made—in my opinion—by a settled 
agricultural people such as the ancient Anau-li were. Hence, either Mucke’s 
theory does not satisfy the requirements, and a settled agricultural people was 
able to effect domestication; or if nomads wandering from oasis to oasis, from 
plateau to plateau, were able to accomplish this, then it is certain that this people 
came from within the local sphere of culture of Anau. That the sphere of Anau’s 
intercourse widened later and was brought by nomadic tribes into relations with 
other spheres—perhaps the Indian—is shown, aside from the importation of metals, 
by the sudden appearance of Canis familiaris matris optime, the shepherd-dog of 
the European bronze period, as well as by that of the camel and the goat—animals 
which arrived during the eneolithic period of Anau’s culture II, between 6000 and 
5100 B.C. 

Until this time, therefore, the Turkestan-Iranian sphere of culture remained 
free from foreign influences, and the domestic animals—whether tamed by the 
settled Anau-li or by nomadic neighbors—were autochthonous products. ‘This is 
the essential point. For this reason, as far as the theory of the descent of the domes- 
ticated animals is concerned, it matters little whether domestication was effected 
by the settled Anau-li or by their nomadic neighbors. The most important point 
for us now is the fact already noted, that the climatic and physiographic condi- 
tions at Anau facilitated the domestication of the wild animals, which sought 
refuge on the oases during the dry time before the foundation of the settlement. 
Another very probable change to aridity took place at the end of culture I, possi- 
bly initiating a migration westward of the nomadic cattle-breeders, accompanied 
perhaps by some cultivators of the soil, who, passing through the Caucasus, brought 
the domestic animals of Anau to Europe. 

What influence the climatic and physiographic conditions exercised upon the 
fauna of Anau is made very clear by the following combination of the relations of 
the approximate ratio of distribution, mentioned before on pages 341, 342. 

Culture Ia, the lowest 8 feet of culture-strata, extending down to 7800 B.¢., 
contains: Cattle, 27 per cent; sheep, 22 per cent; horse, 20 per cent; gazelle, 20 
per cent; wolf, 11 per cent. The bovines keep the principal place, and by the 
same percentage of occurrence of the horse and gazelle the opinion can be intimated 
that the horse here occurs in a wild state like the antelope. 

The following period, the eneolithic culture, from 7800 to 6000 B. ¢., shows 
us. a very changed relation: Horse, 28 per cent; cattle, 25 per cent; sheep, 25 per 
cent; pig, 12 per cent; gazelle, 7 per cent; fox, 2 per cent; deer, 1 per cent. The 
horse forms now the most important stock, and this would seem to indicate that 
the people had become in part nomads, as I mentioned in my hypothesis in opposi- 
tion to Mucke’s. 


CONCLUDING REMARKS. 439 


The next period (culture II, North Kurgan) shows how the sheep predominates 
still more and more among the other animals: Sheep, 25 per cent; cattle, 20 per 
cent; horse, 20 per cent; pig, 15 per cent; goat, 10 per cent; camel, 5 per cent; 
dog, 2 per cent; gazelle, 2 per cent; other wild animals, 1 per cent. This develop- 
ment, increased by the progress of the aridity of Turkestan, reached its point of 
culmination in the relations of the figures shown by census of 1903: Sheep, 80 per 
cent; goat, 8 per cent; camel, 7 per cent; horse, 4 per cent; cattle, 0.1 per cent. 

Never have figures spoken clearer! The agriculture and pasture of the ancient 
times is gone. The large animals which want much food for their support, like cattle 
and the horse, can not be kept; only the sheep accommodates itself well to the 
dryness of the climate, and so forms nearly the entire part of the domestic animals 
of Turkestan. The later importations from the south, as the goat and the camel, 
continued to be useful down to the modern inhabitants. Certainly the physio- 
graphic changes were one of the primeval causes of the frequent emigrations to 
Europe or Southern Asia undertaken by the cattle-breeding nomads of ancient 
Turkestan. It is clear that the establishment of a genetic relationship between 
the domestic animals of Turkestan and those of Europe is especially important, 
and I consider that the appearance at Anau of the long-tailed Ovis aries palustris 
is of the greatest importance in this connection. 

According to Professor Pumpelly’s stratigraphic chronology, which is without 
doubt the most exact prehistoric chronological table that we possess, the 20 feet 
of culture-stratum at the base of the North Kurgan dates from the latter half of 
the IX millennium (8250) B.c. The turbary sheep (Ovvs aries palustris) attained 
its full development 6250 B. c., while we find the large-horned transitional form 
from Ovis vignet arkal about 7000 B.c. Therefore, a migration, which, leaving 
Turkestan between the VI and VII millenniums B. c., penetrated Western Europe, 
might have taken with it this sheep as well as Sus palustris (the turbary pig) and 
the long-horned cattle. It follows that the turbary sheep could not have arrived 
in Europe earlier than in the VII millennium B. c., and since we find its remains 
in the oldest lake-dwellings and early neolithic stations of Central Europe, these 
can not be of greater age. In passing through the Caucasus and Southern Russia 
these emigrants may have adopted and brought to Europe the small dog, Canis 
familiaris palustris, which had possibly been domesticated by a hunter tribe. 
Further on we will consider the small turbary cattle (Torfrind) which they brought 
with them instead of the long-horned cattle of Anau. 

I must say here that these statements do not agree with former ideas con- 
cerning the age of the domestic animals.* The subfossil occurrences in the Forest 
Bed, Tidal Basin, London; Lea Alluvium of the Mills and Canningtown, as well 
as the remains of Ovis aries palustris at Schweizersbild, led me to assume that they 
dated from paleolithic times. This was because there then appeared no valid 
reason to the contrary and because I believed then, as now, in the domestication 
of the European diluvial horse in the paleolithic age. Stimulated by the exact 
consecutive chronological dating of our finds from Anau, I have had, in company 








* Die Tierwelt der Ansiedelungen am Schlossberge zu Burg an der Spree, pp. 292-293. 


440 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


with Professor Pumpelly, the opportunity to examine the finds from Schweizers- 
bild and to test the correctness of the published determination of their age. We 
became convinced that the disagreement is more apparent than real between the 
datings of the Anau time-scale and those of Dr. Nuesch, who places at 8000 B. ¢, 
the beginning of the ‘‘Gray Culture’: stratum at Schweizersbild, which contains 
both Ovis palustris and Sus palustris. (1) The gray culture-stratum is very vari- 
able in thickness, causing uncertainty in the estimation of the age, at any one 
point, of the contents; it may vary thousands of years. (2) The excavation was 
not conducted, as at Anau, in such a manner that the bones of each layer were 
kept separate. On the contrary, all the contents of the gray culture-stratum 
were mixed, the whole stratum being taken as a unit. Any find from this stratum 
may have come either from the bottom or from the top.* 

As regards the occurrence in the paleolithic “yellow stratum’’ (Gelbe Schicht) 
of a sheep called by Studer ‘“Ovrs sp., small form,’’ but by me Ovis palustris, it is 
evident that any one acquainted with the locality must admit the possibility of 
the displacement of the respective pieces from the “gray stratum’’ to the under- 
lying ‘‘yellow stratum.”’ It is easy to understand how, in very thin layers, such a 
displacement could occur in any one of many ways, such as the digging of one of 
the 27 graves, the removal of a large stone and the refilling of the cavity, ete. 

According to a friendly communication of Dr. Frank Conner, the age of the 
English remains is uncertain to the extent that they may be early neolithic quite 
as well as paleolithic. As far as the history of the domestic animals is concerned, 
there is consequently no objection to the assumption that that part of the early 
neolithic period which is characterized by the turbary fauna began after the VII 
millennium B. ¢c. 

The question of the distribution of the cattle is here much more complicated. 
The first remains of the long-horned breed (Bos taurus macroceros) belong at Anau 
about 8000 B. c. We find the same animal again about 3000 to 4000 B. c. in Baby- 
lonia and Egypt. At about 6000 B. c., however, we find that the large long-horned 
animal of Anau has become small and small-boned and had developed into a short- 
horned breed (Bos brachyceros). ‘Therefore, all who do not believe in an autoch- 
thonous domestication of the animals for each separate culture-sphere must admit 
that the original large and stately long-horned ox of Anau was spread by tribal 
migrations before 6000 B.c. to Persia and Mesopotamia and into Egypt and 
Central Africa on the one hand; and on the other hand, to India and Eastern 
Asia, where, according to Chinese accounts, it arrived 3468 B.c. (compare plate 85). 

Did the migration to the west occur only after the small breed had become 
established, 7. e., about 6000 B. ¢., or even between 6000 and 7000 B. ¢. when the 
turbary sheep had formed? To this question we have as yet no answer. We 
must, however, add that it was not in Anau alone that through unfavorable 
conditions of life the originally large and stately ox was changed into the stunted 
short-horned form (Bos taurus brachyceros). The same change took place in 








*This was not the fault of Dr. Nuesch, but was due to the thinness of the stratum, which averaged 
less than 1.5 feet, while its slow accumulation of refuse from meals and occasional falls of small fragments 
from the rock above represent a long period of time during which so thin a layer would be subject to 
frequent disturbance of the mass.—R. P. 


——— 


CONCLUDING REMARKS. 441 


Mesopotamia, as one may easily perceive in comparing the long-horned cattle 
of the Chaldean or Sumero-Accadian times with the Assyrian small, short- 
horned and the modern loose and short-horned or hornless cattle. There is, 
therefore, no reason for rejecting the assumption or hypothesis that the ox of 
Anau, which about 7000 B. Cc. was undergoing this change of form finally reached 
Central Europe, after its migration through Southern Russia and Eastern Europe, 
in the stunted form of Bos taurus brachyceros. Nehring* and If have already 
treated of the development of such stunted forms through insufficient nourish- 
ment, too early pairing in the free state, and the climatic influences on the desert, 
as well as of the reverse process, 7. e., the lengthening of hair and horns and increase 
of bodily size under more favorable conditions. 

After having treated of the outward migrations of the domesticated animals 
of the culture-sphere of Turkestan, we may now touch briefly on the contributions 
this sphere received from without. Leaving out of consideration Sus palustris, 
whose provenience is, as already stated, not yet fully determined, we have, as first 
importations, the shepherd-dog, about 5850 B. c., and in the middle of the same 
millennium the camel, the goat, and possibly the hornless sheep. As has been 
already stated under the respective headings, these importations point to Iran 
and even to the Indian sphere as ancestral lands. The regions, which through 
2000 years received the tame cattle from Turkestan, now reciprocated with the 
domestic animals of their sphere of culture. 

It is demonstrable that the shepherd-dog (Canis matris optime Jeitteles) 
first appeared in Europe between 1500 and 1000 B. ¢c., together with bronze, 7. e., 
about 5000 or 6000 years later than the turbary sheep, turbary pig, and turbary 
ox. Since this dog appeared at Anau about 5850 B.c., its provenience must 
certainly have been outside of Europe and probably, as we have stated, within 
the Indian sphere of culture. 

We may here at last state briefly a closely related hypothesis concerning the 
question of the origin of the Ox-cult. It is known that all peoples who possessed 
and in part now possess the long-horned ox practised this cult. Among these we 
naturally name foremost the Indians and Egyptians as well as the Babylonians 
and Persians. The Assyrians also had the last remains of this cult, which they 
had adopted, as appears in the massive schematic representations of the winged 
sacred bull on their bas-reliefs. Especially highly developed is the Ox-cult among 
the Egyptians and older Indians. As the Egyptians ranked both bulls and cows 
among their gods, looking upon the Apis as an incarnation of Osiris, so the earlier 
Indians in their sacred books attributed their whole state and their whole life to 
the Ox. 

May we not draw from this the inference that these religions had the same 
ancestral home, and that the initial momentum of their rise lay in the precedent 
of domestication? If it were true, as Salomon Reinach once said, “‘le culte précé- 
dait la culture,’ there could no longer be any doubt as to the origin of the Ox-cult; 








*Torfrind. Zeitsch. f. Ethnologie, Bd. 21, Verh., pp. 363-369. 
+ Naturgeschichte d. Haustiere yon Wilckens, II Auflage, pp. 263-264. 


442 ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT ANAU. 


nor should we need the corroborative evidence of the terra-cotta figurines of cattle 
that were used in Anau 3000 B.c. In any event we may be permitted to suggest 
this hypothesis, leaving its fate to be decided after further investigations. 

In the cattle-cult of the followers of Zoroaster—the Parsees—whose ancestors 
down to the end of the Sassanian dynasty ruled over Anau, we may see an especially 
important point in connection with precedents of the culture-sphere of ancient 
Turkestan. The Zend-Avesta contains a hymn lauding the value of cattle, which 
may indicate that a people who could hold cattle in such high estimation in their 
own culture might really have accomplished the domestication of the ox. 

“In the ox is our strength, in the ox is our speech, 
in the ox is our victory, in the ox is our nourishment, 


in the ox is our clothing, in the ox is our agriculture 
which furnishes to us food.’’ 


3 “ , 7 
we re Ve a 
i 


- 
ie 


_ -_ 
- 


7 ; Pad 
ee 





PART VII. 


~ DESCRIPTION OF SOME SKULLS FROM THE 
- NORTH KURGAN, ANAU. 


By ProFEessor G. SERGI. 


[CHAPTER XXI. PLATES 92, 93.] 


~ 


yr vie + on 





CHAPTER XXI—SKULLS FROM ANAU.* 





PLATE 92. 
Figs. 1-3, No. 1, A.N.K., +25 feet. 

Skull of adult individual, probably female, imperfect. Length, 185 mm.; 
breadth, 141 (?) mm.; index, 76.2. Height from auditory foramen to bregma, 
107 mm. Frontal breadth, minima, 95 mm. Orbital width, left, 36 mm.; orbital 
height, 30 mm.; index, 83.3. Malar bone, left, breadth, 25 mm.; height, 26 mm. 
Nasal bone, left, length, 26 mm.; width, 10.5 mm. Angle of nasal bone with 
frontal, 130.7°. The skull is mesocephalic, chamecephalic, with frontal suture; 
with inclined orbit; malar bone is small. Only the left part of the nasal bone; in 
form and type it is identical with the nasal bones of the Mediterranean race, and 
very different from the Mongolian type of nose. The skull is a pentagonoides. 


Fags. 4-5, No. 2, A.N.K., Terrace III. 

We complete this description with another fragment of adult skull, z. e., with 
one complete maxilla, and with part of the left mandible. Palato-maxillary 
breadth, 61 mm.; length, 55 mm. Pyriform aperture of nose, width, 22 mm. 
Nasal height, 47 (?) mm. Index, 46.8. Spino-alveolar height, 23 mm. Little 
prophatnia or alveolar prognathism; teeth strongly worn. 


PLATE 93. 
Fig. x, No. 3, A.N.K., +23 feet. 
Skull of child, 2 to 3 years, imperfect. Length, 166 mm.; breadth, 122 mm.; 
index, 73.4. Maxilla of the same individual; it has the second molar milk tooth. 
Skull, ovordes, dolichocephalic. 


Fig. 2, No. 4, A.N.K., +32 to +37 feet. 

Skull from 2 to 3 years, imperfect. Length, 170 mm.; breadth, 120 mm.; 
index, 70.5. Maxilla with mandible, with 2 milk molars. Pentagonoides, dolicho- 
cephalic, a little deformed. . 

Fig. 3, No. 5, A.N.K., —11 feet. 

Skull of child, 4 to 5 years, imperfect, without the frontal bone. Breadth, 
124 mm.; length, from 170 to 175 mm. (calculated); index, from 72.9 to 70.8. 
Dolichocephalic, probably ellipsoides cuneatus. ‘The left fragment of mandible 
has 2 milk molars. 

Fig. 4, No. 6, A.N.K., +32 to +37 feet. 

Skull of child, imperfect. Length, 188 mm.; breadth, 125 mm.; index, 66.4. 

Ultra-dolichocephalic, ellipsoides, very long. 


Fig. 5, No. 9, A.N.K., +25 jeet. 
Fragment of skull of child, ellipsoides cuneatus. Breadth (probably), 124 mm. 





* Although the skulls found in our excavations were as a rule badly crushed, Mr. Langdon Warner 
was able to save the more important parts of several individuals. Professor Sergi has kindly volun- 


teered to examine these and gives the results herewith.—R. P. 
445 


446 SKULLS FROM ANAU. 


OTHER SPECIMENS, NOT SHOWN ON PLATES. 


No. 7, A.N.K., Terrace I, Skeleton a. 
Fragment of skull of child, type of dolichogepiant skull. 


No. 8, A.N.K., +37 feet. 

Skull of child, fragment. Breadth, 127 mm. It is an ovoides, or ellipsoides 
cuneatus. 

RESULTS. 

From examination of these skulls it is found that— 

The characters of the skulls of Anau, both in calvaria and in facial bones, 
do not show any different structure from the characters which commonly we find 
in the skulls of the Mediterranean variety with long dolichomesocephalic form. 

The cephalic indices, together with the nasal index in the fragment No, 2 
(plate 92, figs. 4 and 5), the form of the maxilla and of the nasal bone, show appar- 
ently this convergence of characters. 

The prophatnia of the same fragment, No. 2, is not absolutely absent in the 
Mediterranean race. 

The pentagonal form of the skull is also common in the Mediterranean race, 
and is a general character in the skulls of the fetus and children. 

(See my memoirs: Le forme del cranio umano nello sviluppo fetale; Rivista 
di Biologia, Como, 1900. Nuove osservazioni sulle forme del cranio umano; 
Atti Societa romana di antropologia, 1904. Die Variationen des menschlichen 
Schadels und die Klassification der Rassen; Archiv f. Anthropologie, N. F. m1, 
1905.) 

These skulls differ absolutely from the so-called Mongolian type. 

The results shown above give a certainty to my hypothesis of some years 
ago on the probable penetration into Central Asia of one branch of the Mediter- 
ranean variety. (See Gli Arii in Europa e in Asia, Torino, 1903.) 

Table of measurements (in millimeters) of the fragmentary skulls, adult and infant, of 
North Kurgan, Anau. 





























+ — feet above, — = feet below datum. 
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 
Terr. “+32 +32to| Terr 
+ 25° | Tit | 2s te age) ee Ieee 
cuit Adela o aeetng, tnt.) tate dat Wty ee 

Length..cntne ce eee 185 eae] LOO 170 170-175? |188 te oo se 
Breadth wei ere 141? Ae thee 120 124 125 Sac 127 
Ind €xs. ts ats Neate eee TUF; Zell en ees aT A 70.5 |72.9-70.8 | 66.4 : 
Frontal breadth (min.)..... 95 Bc, Mera) Weer) aso Sonne oie 
Height from auditory fora- 

MON Meta ae es ee 107 nae 
Nasalthetch tase eee ae 47? 
Nasal ‘width: 2... oe Sead 22 
Index tno.c sen eee Ak 46.8 
Orbital widthe. ss aeaee es 36 test 
Orbitaliheish tere eer 30 
Index7 72.3). 00 an oe soe eas | | ane 
Palato-maxillary breadth. . ahs 61 
Palato-maxillary length. . raf 55 eee Pete are $oeactel ory ib oe 
Cranial forte cco, cesses | Pentag. .... |Ovoid.| Pentag.| Ellips. | Ellips.| .... | Ellips. 














PLATE 92. 





Fics. 1-3. Skull of adult, probably female (No. 1, A.N.K.,+25 feet). From top of first culture, North Kurgan, Anau. 
4-5. Fragment of adult skull (No. 2, A.N.K., Terrace III), From near end of first culture, North Kurgan, Anau. 


Fic. 1. Imperfect skull of child, 2-3 years (No. 3, A.N.K: Fic. 3. Skull of child, 4-5 years (No. 5, A.N.K., —11 feet). 


+23 feet). Near end of first culture, North From the earlier centuries of the first culture, 
Kurgan, Anau. North Kurgan, Anau. 
2. Skull of child, 2-3 years (No 4, A.N.K., +32 to +37 4, Imperfect skull of child (No. 6, A.N.K., +32 to +37 
peaies From second culture, North Kurgan, feet). From second culture, North Kurgan, 
nau. Anau. 


Fic. 5. Fragment of skull of child (No. 9, A.N.K., +25 feet). From end of first culture, North Kurgan, Anau. 


PLATE 93. 








PART VIII. 
SOME HUMAN REMAINS FOUND IN THE NORTH KURGAN, ANAU. 


By Dr. Tu. MoLison, 
Assistant in the Anthropological Institute, Zurich. 


[CHAPTER XXII. PLATES 94—-96.] 





CHAPTER XXIl. 
SOME HUMAN REMAINS FOUND IN THE NORTH KURGAN, ANAU.* 


Some remains of human bones having been sent to the Ziirich Institute by 
the Director of the Pumpelly Expedition, through Dr. Duerst, Professor Dr. 
Martin has kindly transferred them to me for examination. 

Unfortunately the material belongs in by far the greater part to children, 
in some cases, indeed, to infants, and one fetus. 

The bones of adults come from at least five individuals, while the rest are 
distributed among about twenty or twenty-five children. 

As regards the original position, all the bones come from the North Kurgan, 
and the greater part of those of children is supposed to belong to the culture 
that is below +25feet. Those of adults, on the other hand, are supposed to come 
from the overlying metallic period, about +25 feet. 

Unfortunately, as Dr. Duerst informs me, a certain amount of confusion 
has occurred in the numbering of the bones through a change in the nomenclature 
of the different culture-periods. The bones marked II (Nos. 526, 68, 107, 486, 
487, 622, 623, 624, 626, 644, 648, 750, 753, 1057, 1060, 1064, 1066), which, according 
to this communication, come from the layers + 26 to + 31 feet of the second terrace, 
belong to the II or Copper period. This period is on the other bones still marked 
by its old denomination, III. These bones marked III come from the strata + 28 
to +31 feet of the second and fifth terraces, therefore from the same layers as 
those marked II. This explains why, in several cases, bones which belong to 
one individual, or even exactly fitting pieces of one bone, carry the numbers 
of two different culture-periods. 

This complication makes it necessary to determine the bones belonging 
to one individual through a study of the shape and size. Fortunately the greater 
number and the best-preserved remains belong to the largest individual. In the 
following we have brought together the bones belonging to the separate adult 
individuals and add the reasons for their individual identity. 


INDIVIDUAL I. 


Fragments of left half of pelvis, II 86x. 

Left femur (composed of two pieces), III 862 +II 
487, fitting into acetabulum of pelvis. 

Right femur (number lost), symmetric with the left. 

Right tibia, III 867, tibio-femoral index, similarity 
in modeling. 

Upper end, III 854, and lower end, III 866, of left 
tibia, symmetric with the right. 

Upper end, 844, and lower end, III 816, of right 
fibula. 

Lower end of left fibula, III 839, fitting to tibia. 

Right talus, III 859. 

Left talus, III 851, fitting to tibia. 





Right calcaneus, III 819. 

Left calcaneus, III 853, fitting to talus. 

Right naviculare, III 841, fitting to talus. 

Right cuneiforme I, III 823, fitting to naviculare. 
Right metatarsus I, III 852, fitting to cuneiforme. 
Right metatarsus II, III 843. ) 

Right metatarsus III, III 833. | 

Right metatarsus IV, III 835. | Apparently be- 
Left metatarsus I, III 817. f longing to indi- 
Left metatarsus II, III 842. vidual I. 

Left metatarsus III, III 827. | 

Left metatarsus IV, III 834. J 








* These remains, which were not recognized as human during the excavation, were separated by Dr. 
Duerst from the bones of animals which I sent to him for study.—R. P. 


449 


450 


INDIVIDUAL II. 


Fragment of left half of pelvis, II 486. 
Head of right femur, II 1086: 
Width of os ischii (from limbus acetabuli to 
incis. isch.) , Il: id. I=37 mm.: 40 mm. 
Height of head of femur I=49 mm. 
Height to be expected for head of-femur 
Il=45 mm. 
Height of the one in hand=47 mm. 
Fragment of neck of left femur, II 1057, symmetric 
with neck of right femur. 
Left calcaneus (number lost) : 
Length of calcaneus, I: width of os ischii, 
I=87 mm : 40 mm, 
Length expected of calcaneus, II=79 mm. 
Length of calcaneus in hand=82 mm. 
Talus, II 86x, fitting to calcaneus. 
Right metatarsus II (no number).) Appear to be- 
Left metatarsus III, II 1064. ) long here. 


InDIvipuAL III. 


Lower third of right tibia, III 641. 
Lower half of left tibia, II 68. symmetric with right 
tibia. 
Lower half of right fibula, II 626, fitting on tibia. 
Right talus, II 644, fitting on tibia. 
Left calcaneus, III 58: 
Length of tibia from foramen nutritivum 
to lower joint-surface, III : id. I=231 
mm, : 257 mm. 
Lengthto be expected of caleaneus=78 mm. 
Length of calcaneus in hand=76 mm. 








HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 


INDIVIDUAL III.—Continued. 


Right metatarsus I, II 1060: 

Lengthof metatarsus I (fromupper edge of 
proximal joint-surface to,capitulum), 
I: length of calcaneus, I=69 mm.: 
87 mm. 

Length to be expected of metatarsus I, 
IJI=60 mm. 

Length of metatarsus in hand (measured 
as above) =60 mm. 


INDIVIDUAL IV. 


Left metatarsus I, III 77. 

Right metatarsus I, II 648, symmetric with the left. 
Right metatarsus III, II 622. ) 

Right metatarsus IV, II 624. | Belong apparently 
Right metatarsus V, II 623. IV; 

Left metatarsus IJ, III 66. 


INDIVIDUAL V. 


Upper half of right femur (in two pieces), II 52b + 
IVE GSO; 
Right metatarsus I, II 750: 
Length of metatarsus I, I : length of femur 
from head to middle of diaphyse = 
69 mm. : 267 mm. 
Corresponding length of femur V= about 
215 mm. 
Length to be expected of metatarsus I, 
V=about 55 mm. 
Length of metatarsus in hand=52 mm. 
Right metatarsus II, II 753, appears to belong to V. 


There are some more fragments of bones, the connection of which with the 
above-stated individuals was not determined. 


. Outer end of right clavicula, III 636. 


Wh Hw 


. Right metacarpale V, III 644. 


. Right angle and proc. condyl. of lower jaw, II 107. 


. Fragment of right spina scapule (without number). 


5. Right cuboid, III 675. 
6. Right naviculare, III 335. 
7. Base of left metatarsus V, III 79. 


We will turn first to the description of the bones of individual I and then 
consider any variations occurring in the others. 


INDIVIDUAL I. 


The fragment of the pelvis is too incomplete to be of use for a comparative 


study. 


The two femora belong unquestionably to a strong man. 
of strongly marked character, rather slender, with sharply marked relief. 
larly striking is the marked curvature of the diaphyse (plate 94, fig. 1). 


They are bones 
Particu- 
Unfortu- 


nately we are not able to express in figures a comparison of this curvature with that 
of other races, since most authors use an index of curvature which is obtained 
by measuring the height above the plane on which the bone lies; this is useless, 
because it is too much influenced by the form of the epiphyses. If one wished 
to express the curvature through an index obtained from height and chord, the 
termini of this chord should be the two points between which the curvature of 
the anterior surface lies; that is, on the upper end of the diaphysis, a point at the 


HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. A5I 


level of the lower edge of the trochanter minor on the anterior side, and on the 
lower end about in the place where it is customary to measure the lower sagittal 
diameter, both points being of course in the medial plane. The height would 
be the greatest height of the anterior surface above this base. 

By this method we obtain for the two femora under consideration a chord- 
height index =5.5 right and 5.3 left. The curvature is not evenly distributed along 
the diaphysis; it is greatest at the boundary between the upper and middle thirds. 
The contrary is the case in Homo primigenius, where the strongest curvature 
is in the lower part of the diaphysis. Thirty femora of the Anatomical Institute 
show, with the single exception of two belonging to the same individual, the same 
character in this respect as our Anau femora; this seems, too, to be the rarely 
broken rule among modern Europeans. I measured the greatest curvature, and 
obtained the curvature value, which is to be defined as the reciprocal value of the 
radius of curvature (in meters) for a distance of about 80 mm. on both femora 
= 2.7, which would correspond to a curvature radius of 37 cm. 

Notwithstanding the impression of slenderness made by this femur alongside 
of that of the Neandertal man or even of that of most Europeans, its length- 
thickness index (respectively 24.8, 23.9) lies above the mean value, 22.8, given 
by Bumiiller (1899, p. 21). This, however, is due to the fact that the circum- 
ference of the middle of the diaphysis is much enlarged by pilaster-formation, as 
Broca has called the ridge which sometimes extends down the posterior side of the 
femur and carries the linea aspera. ‘To characterize the degree of development 
of the pilaster Broca calculated an index pilastricus, taking the sagittal diameter 
at the point of greatest elevation of the pilaster, in relation to the transverse 
diameter. This index amounts for our femora, for both sides, to 121.4. We 
may use for comparison the following figures compiled by Klaatsch (1901, p. 627) 
from different authors: 


Japanese (Bumiiller)............. ToGo eskiton (Hepburn), . oc «ae < «,stoetes ss 2 3 118.4 
ATG  (BOUmUHEeR) eect oe ecc sie eles 2 ea 6 103.1 Nesron( Bumitller) sence ere ersten oes ole 119.8 
Malayan (Eeppurn)ceemer a» sistss.er 104 AustEalian; (ep OuULi eects estes ee ee AG: 
NEAOIT LECT DUET ce oss cory aiecac stare 110.1 Cro-Magnon (Bumiiller) (one individual). 128.0 
Andamanese (Hepburn).......... 113.5 


Marked curvature of the diaphysis has been held responsible for the growth 
of the pilaster. Manouvrier and Bumiiller find its cause in muscular action. 
Neither view seems to me to be correct. Bumiiller shows that curvature and 
pilaster-formation do not stand in any correlation. If we visualize the direction 
in which the bone is compressed by the weight of the body, it will seem very 
probable that the strongest tendency to break will be somewhat below the middle 
of the diaphysis; that is, at that point where the pilaster-formation is as a rule 
most marked. An exact proof of this view can be had only experimentally. 
The strongest tendency to break moves elsewhere when the bone is deformed by 
abnormal curvature. This can happen, for instance, in rachitic changes. Then 
the pilaster can move up into the upper third of the diaphysis. As Bumiiller 
remarks, a strong pilaster-formation is often accompanied by a marked convexity 
of the anterior surface, in a sense an anterior pilaster (fig. 493 d). This is equally 


452 HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 


the case when the pilaster is in the normal position or when it is moved. It 
follows from all this that the pilaster can not be caused by muscular action, but 
rather by the static demands of the bone. We know, indeed, that bone substance 
is deposited especially in those places through which the lines of greatest pressure 
and tension run. It is natural that pilaster-formation is found especially in such 
femora as have the muscle ridges well developed, since in individuals having strong 
muscles greater demands are made on the femora, and individuals whose femora 
are brought severely into play have their muscles strongly developed. 


e 9 





vo 6 oe 
ee Q «+ 


Fig. 494.—Cross-sections of the Femora, Tibiae, and Fibulae. 


Fig. Oe age phim pe ere 5 te} pk apt ee = iran of tuberosities. 
; bos ie , : ame at the height of foramen nutntivum. 

igre omni ra ae yearns ae (c) Right tibia in middle of diaphysis. _(d) Left tibia 

Lemtigth Goda Ke Rite (hans pees of Anau [| at height of tuberosities. (e) Right femur 

b ne he tidal (f) Richt { f of Anau V somewhat below middle. (f) Left femur 

Bae att ge aac st diaoh Flea hash 3 of a child (III 865) somewhat below middle (g) 

pean, physis. Right fibula of Anau III about middle of diaphysis. 


(h) Right fibula of a European at same place. 


Figure 493, b, shows the cross-section of the left femur of Anau I somewhat 
below the middle. This as well as the other represented cross-sections were 
obtained by the method with wax and plaster given by E. Fischer (1906, p. 184). 
The well-dried plaster casts, after being polished smooth on the section surface 
with fine glass-paper, were laid on photographic developing paper and copied 
under a circular movement beneath a gaslight. 


HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 453 


Figure 493,d, is the cross-section of a rachitic femur with curvature and pilaster- 
formation in the upper third, which shows clearly the anterior pilaster, as we 
mentioned it above. It has been attempted to trace the cause of the pilaster 
in all cases back to rachitis; this is wholly unfounded. The pilaster is formed 
always when the demands upon the bone continually approach its ultimate strength, 
so that the elastic flexures produce sufficient excitation for the apposition of bone 
substance; it is quite indifferent whether this limit is reached through excessive 
demand or through insufficient strength. We may therefore trace this character- 
istic of the Anau femora, and indeed also their strong curvature, to very considerable 
exertion on the part of the lower extremities, which, as we shall see later, has also 
produced considerable changes in the tibia. 

The upper end of the diaphysis shows scarcely anything worthy of remark. 
The index of the diaphysis cross-section amounts here to 85.3 and 82.3 respectively ; 
it is therefore at the limit between platymerism and eurymerism. On the other 
hand, the lower end shows a shaping differing essentially from the form of that 
of the modern European. ‘The anterior surface is here considerably more depressed. 
It is also strongly inclined towards the medial side; on the other hand, the planum 
popliteum is also inclined toward the medial side, so that a very considerable 
narrowing of the bone is caused on this side, which shows itself in a triangular 
cross-section (fig. 493, c). In contrast to this, the corresponding cross-section of a 
European femur has a much more rounded form (fig. 493, /). The preponderance 
of the lateral sagittal diameter is clearly recognizable when we express it in per- 
centage of the sagittal diameter of the median plane. We find here an index 
of 133 right and 137 left. 

A further peculiarity in the form of the Anau femur is the rather abrupt 
attachment of the lower epiphysis upon the diaphysis, in contrast to the gradual 
“‘trumpet-like’’ flare present in the more common European form (plate 94, fig. 4). 
This sudden enlargement of the end of the slender diaphysis is very pronouncedly 
present in the man of Neandertal andin Spy I. Martin (1905, p. 617) has described 
this form also in the Senoi femur. Plate 94, fig. 4, shows the lower end of the 
femora of Neandertal, Anau I, and of a modern European. 

An examination of the upper epiphysis shows a striking torsion of the collum. 
If we imagine a plane laid through the head, the trochanter major, and the saddle- 
point of the lower joint-surface, we shall see that the greatest diameter of the 
collum forms with this plane an angle which, according to Lehmann-Nitsche 
(1894, p. 25 and p. 43), amounts to 19.5° in the Bajuvars; 17° in the Suebians 
and Alemanni; in the Anau I femora, both right and left, this angle reaches 33°. 
In the Neandertal femur we find this torsion angle of the collum = 26°. A high 
value for this angle would seem from this to be a mark of primitive form. 

The linea obliqua is strongly developed and stands remarkably steep, reaching 
the medial edge about 4 cm. below the trochanter minor. It forms with the axis 
of the diaphysis an angle which we can mark with a needle and measure direct 
with the protracter. It is 19° right, 17° left. In the Neandertal femur, which 
has the linea obliqua very faintly indicated, this angle is about 22°; in the Senoi 


454 HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 


femur, male, right 27°, left 22°; on modern Europeans I measured 36° and 45°. 
I would, therefore, look upon this steep position of the linea obliqua as another 
primitive mark which our Anau individual seems to share with recent lower races 
and also with Homo primigenius. 

The strongly-drawn-out trochanter minor extends considerably beyond the 
inner edge of the femur in the manner described and represented by Martin (1905, 
p- 614); for the rest this condition seems to occur also among modern Europeans 
of strong muscular development. With this movement of the trochanter minor 
towards the medial side, there is related the more transverse course of the strongly. 
developed crista intertrochanterica (plate 95, fig. 1). The upper end of the linea 
aspera rises to a strong trochanter tertius. 

The lower epiphysis is, as stated above, attached rather abruptly to the 
slender shaft of the diaphysis. It is specially characterized by the far backward 
extension of the condyles. This shows itself also in the relation of the radii of 
the ligamenta (see Bumiiller), that is, of the vertical and horizontal distances 
(in projection) of the places, where the ligamenta collateralia are attached, from 
the joint-surface. It we take the points of attachment of the ligamenta on the 
epicondyli tuberosities, the horizontal radius is in all cases considerably greater 
than the vertical. If, however, we assume also that the ligamenta had their 
origin in the slight grooves which lie behind every epicondyle, then the horizontal 
radius would be reached by the vertical only on the lateral side (plate 95, fig. 4). 
All this would represent a condition which Bumiiller considers so typical of the 
apes that on this account he declared the pithecanthropus femur to be that of 
an ape. 

The planum popliteum is in all directions concave, and the concavity increases 
vertically from above downward. There is also a distinct transverse concavity in 
the middle (curvature value, right 6, left 4). 

Notwithstanding the decided prominence of the condyles towards the rear, 
the length of the projection of the lateral condyle is somewhat slight, from which 
there results a very low condyle index, right 73.9 and left 74.7, which is still 
below the value of 75, given by Bumiiller as the minimum of Europeans. 

In comparison with the length of the bone the lower epiphysis can not be 
thought especially broad. ‘This is at once evident if, using Klaatsch’s method 
(1900, p. 652), we calculate an index from the two measurements, taking for length, 
as Klaatsch does, the trochanter length, in order to have comparable figures. 
Unfortunately Klaatsch has, probably through mistake, calculated the reverse 
ratio and moved the point one place to the left, and other authors have followed 
his procedure. Therefore we, too, are forced to express the trochanter length 
in percentage of the width of the epiphysis; but in doing this we have put the 
point in its proper place, and have added the values found by Martin for Senoi. 

It would have been more useful to have calculated the index as was originally 
intended, that is, to express the condyle width in percentage of the length. We 
should then, in using Klaatsch’s trochanter length, have values of 19.7 right 
and 19.2 left. Comparing the width of the lower epiphysis with the diaphysis 


HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 455 


length according to Bumiiller, the index is 21.8 right and 21.3 left, therefore 
tolerably near the mean value found by the above author. 

















Trochanter | Epicondyle |Index, 

length (a). width (6). | a:0. 
pill ined 2 2) Sacer dg ei este) pe Rane about 410 go 455 
INeandertalyrioiitine cach icc we vaca 423 87 486 
Neatidertal@letivwstn 1 chem ore 425 87 488 
\Japaneseneis tema ccs cos cee See. 390 78 500 
Array eign een eg che ees Sv eie as 447 88 508 
ANAWE Melt errs ere settee ters stents etre 2 452 87 519 
Senoi, male, right and left......... 366.5 69 530 
Senoi, female, right and left........ BO765 66 556 
Malay Smetana tor meee meee: 410 76 539 
Wieddatiin mrt © ee eis sere eck | 425 78 545 
UNC ST LG p aren iis ee at ok el gaat Ae 0 390 70 556 





The torsion measured between the collum axis and the condyle tangent 
amounts to right 26° and left 28°. These are high values, as high as those observed 
by Martin in Senoi (1905, p. 625). European femora have, according to Martin’s 
determinations, in the mean a torsion of only about 8°. 

Of the two tibie the right one is almost wholly preserved; of the left one, 
on the other hand, there is only the upper end, which is very defective in the right 
one. ‘This makes it possible to reconstruct the right tibia, so that the measure- 
ments of length can be determined closely within a few millimeters. There can 
be very little doubt that the two tibie belong to one individual; not only do the 
measurements agree well, but the more delicate features, such as the form of the 
tuberosities, etc., are almost as if reflected in the mirror. 

The tibia also shows a series of indications that refer it to an inferior race. 
Thus one is at once struck by the considerable lateral flattening of the upper and 
middle part of the diaphysis, which one is used to designate as platycnemy, and 
by a decided curvature of the shaft toward the front (plate 95, fig. 5). These 
two features stand, as Manouvrier has shown, in a certain relation, and indeed so 
that platycnemy is found more often on tibize with forward convexity than on 
straight ones. Manouvrier (1888, p. 497) has traced both of these peculiarities 
to one and the same origin, the powerful function of the lower part of the leg under 
severe exertion in walking and running, as it is brought into play especially among 
primitive hunting peoples. According to his view, platycnemism is caused by the 
constant work of the musculus tibialis posticus, which has to keep the lower limb 
upright, while the curvature toward the front is caused by the pressure working 
under similar circumstances with a tendency toward fracture, a strain which recurs 
at every step, especially in going downhill. 

As regards the two mentioned features, it is clear from the investigations 
of Manouvrier and other authors, that such flattening of the tibia is found especially 
among peoples of the lower stage of civilization. Platycnemy occurs, it is true, 
occasionally everywhere, even among modern Europeans, but it occurs here much 
more rarely and to a lesser degree than among peoples living in a so-called state 
of nature, where it is in places the rule. But not among all: the Negroes, for 
instance, form an exception. 


456 HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 

Broca has obtained an index platycnemicus to characterize this feature, by 
expressing the width-diameter of the tibia in percentage of its sagittal diameter. 
He and most of the later investigators took these two measurements at the height 
of the foramen nutritivum, since in most cases the flattening diminishes further 


down. Some data are given in the following table: 


Index cnemicus. 




















Groups Investigator. Index 
Modern French;-male®, sano: amie see eee aie tae Manouvrier 74.5 
Lothringer 1 (before the XX ‘centtiny) = oi. one sale eee Manouvrier GALT 
Lothringer. Il, malevand females ere. a rene tte e Manouvrier 2 ad 
Negroes; different: ofigins..73.5 os och eames ain ten ee ee Manouvrier 2 ae 
BajuUvarsicwn: Mois cab os. seiritselt, a eke cesueietes 3 Mae aek st t ower Lehman-Nitsche 2 ae 
Senoi-and Semangi.: ct ss.cniee cate ete ret eee Martin about 67 
Negrito, maletand female Saas tern eee Manouvrier 64.5 
Nesrito, male and temale, ivy. . cheer. crt seat ees ctr Manouvrier 64.7 
Negrito,;male/and female, LI 2 ye erneiclet oie aeaereene Manouvrier 65.7 
Andamanese, male (measured in middle of diaphysis).... Flower 64.7 
New<Caledonians.c).7. Aoc senes ae neebeei tie erence ote Manouvrier 63.5 
PATIO. be atalino tek oe rele oie icortehcs Snee aetc erea ee Ne eae Koganei 6255 
Dolmen of Port Blane. 70ers ee eye Manouvrier 63.3 
Dolmen of Port Blamc Tvs gerne sere el tree tei Manouvrier 64.3 
Upper Galitormia Indians ie walter tee ee Manouvrier 63.7 
Upper California Indiang Tl soa ne es casne ner eee Ue 2 Manouvrier 60.2 
Upper Calttotnia Indians UL et ye eas aie st teres Manouvrier 59.2 
Upper California: Indians LV joa. s <eviteeh octet te aera Manouvrier 62.7 
Prehistoric tibies.of Feigneux. 3 i..45> 000+. cenn aeons Manouvrier 62.8 
Weddas, males). 6 hn ces mai ieee eet arene Sarasin 60.5 








Thus our Anau tibia with an index of 61.5 approaches the extremest form 
that is found as a mean value in a race. 

As was remarked above, platycnemy is usually most pronounced in the upper 
third of the bone. On the other hand, P. and F. Sarasin found in the tibize of the 
Weddas that the flattening extended over the upper two-thirds. It is so also in 
the Anau tibia. Instead of diminishing from the foramen nutritivum (fig. 494, b), 
it increases downward, so that in the middle of the diaphysis (fig. 494, c) we find 
an index of only 61.1. 

The already mentioned curvature of the tibia forward, which is not rarely 
connected with platycnemy and has shared with this and with the pilaster formation 
of the femur the fate of being declared rachitic, is clearly expressed on our tibia 
(plate 95, fig. 5). Also, the posterior surface is more concave than is usual, for 
instance, among recent Europeans. 

In order to measure the amount of this curvature for comparison with others, 
one must lay a straight line from the lowest point (the tibia lying horizontal) 
below the tuberosity to the deepest point above the edge of the distal joint and 
measure the height of the ante or edge above this line. This method gives with 
our tibia a height of 7 mm. Since the distance between the two above-named 
points is about 230 mm., we find, by expressing the height in percentage of the 
chord, an index of 3.1. Unfortunately no investigations, so far as I can learn, 
have been made of this peculiarity of form, which we might use for comparison. 
Only Manouvrier mentions that he found it in the Guanches together with platy- 


HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 457 


cnemism, and he gives a figure of such a tibia (1888, p. 506). A measurement 
on this reduced picture can, of course, give no exact result, still the corresponding 
index seems to amount to 3.5. The two Wedda tibie Nos. 178 and 179, on plate 
Lxxxu of the frequently mentioned work of Sarasin, yield indices of 3.5 and 4.7. 
In contrast to these values the curvature of the Anau tibia must be considered 
moderate. 

A further character of great importance exists on the anterior edge of the 
lower joint-surface, where this 
goes over into the anterior sur- Pe a an: oe ere 
face of the bone. In European ir 
shin bones a sharp edge usually fi 
separates the joint-surface from 
the anterior surface of the tibia. 
In our tibia, on the other hand, 
the joint-surface extends in one 
place over the just-mentioned 
edge, and makes on the anterior Nees \~—Y” 
surface of the tibia a small facet 
whose condition shows clearly e d 
that it was originally covered 
with cartilage (plate 95, fig. 3, a). 
At this point the edge, instead 
of being sharp, is rounded softly 
off. On the right tibiathe facet 
is less large, but it is still clearly 
present. The difference in the eS Gores, 
form of the joint-surface from a 
that of a Europeanis best recog- 
nized in a sagittal section that 
was drawn with theaidof a lead Fig. 495.—(a) Sagittal section of joint surface of condylus lateralis tibiae 


: from Anau I. (b) Same section from a European tibia. 
wire through the place of the (c) Sagittal section through lower joint-section of left tibia 


facet (fig. 495, € and d). through facet, Anau I; thick line marks cartilage cover. (d) 


2 gh’: Same section through European tibia. (e) Sagittal section 
This characteristic has been through medial edge of trochlea and medial neck-swelling. 


found among different lower (f) Sagittal section through trochlea and lateral neck-swelling. 
races, and also in anthropoids; thus by Thomson (1890, p. 213) in the gorilla, 
orang, and in the Weddas; by Martin in the Fuegians (1894, p. 198) and Senoi 
(1905, p. 635). 

The occurrence was already rightly interpreted by its first observer, Thomson 
(1889, p. 624), who sought the cause of this facet in frequent strong dorsal flexure 
of the foot which occurs especially in a squatting position. Let us look a little 
more closely into the mechanism of the object before us. 

As one can see in a skeleton, in strong dorsal flexure of the foot the talus 
presses with the anterior upper surface of its neck on the forward edge of the joint- 
surface of the tibia. In this action it is especially the medial and lateral edges 


drockiea Sea Proehien. 
(4 fi 


swelli rig 


458 HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 


of the neck which are subjected to the pressure, while the central depressed part 
is less affected. Accordingly the cartilaginous covering of the joint is spread 
especially over the two lateral swellings of the neck; the depression between these 
remains free (plate 95, fig. 3, 6). But now the two swellings act very differently. 
The medial swelling presents a direct continuation of the medial edge of the sur- 
face of the trochlea, as we can see by taking a corresponding impression with 
lead wire (fig. 495, e). The action of the lateral swelling is wholly different. 
It rises sharply from the surface of the trochlea (fig. 495, f). Consequently, when 
the foot is flexed in a dorsal direction, the medial swelling slides smoothly under 
the articular surface of the tibia, without altering essentially the edge of the latter; 
at most it deepens a little more the depression of the articular surface at the base 
of the malleolus. On the other hand, the lateral swelling presses itself against 
the edge of the articular surface, flattens it and produces the above-mentioned 
overspreading of the cartilage on the anterior surface of the bone. If this explana- 
tion is right, the edges of the cartilage-covered surfaces on the astragalus and 
tibia must fit each other exactly, when brought into an extreme dorsiflexion. 
Indeed that is so in our case. ‘This, too, gives a certain proof that our astragalus 
belongs really to the fragment of tibia. 

That the squatting position gives rise to this strong dorsal flexion is shown 
by the fact that the change just described on the lower joint is often accompanied 
by a corresponding one on the upper joint. We find there often a rounding 
off of the posterior edge of the joint-surface, which shows itself especially on the 
lateral joint-groove and causes the joint-groove to appear convex in its posterior 
segment. Also this characteristic is indicated on the left tibia head, even if 
not very marked (fig. 495,@). It would correspond about to No. 2-3 of Thomson’s 
scheme (1890, p. 211). The cause of this variation is doubtless to be found in the 
strong flexure of the knee, through which the posterior, upper surface of the 
condyles is brought against the posterior edge of the joint-surface of the tibia. 
It is at least doubtful whether the backward divergence of the head of the tibia 
(plate 95, fig. 2) is also produced, or increased, by strong bending of the knee, 
since it seems to occur in cases where such a function can not be shown as a cause. 
An examination of this divergence by Manouvrier’s method (1893, p. 231) gave 
an angle of inclination of 10°. The angle of retroversion could not be measured; 
with the considerable curvature of the tibia it is not possible to speak of a straight 
diaphysis axis so that we have no criterion for the position. An inclination angle 
of 10° lies perfectly within the range of variation of modern Europeans and exceeds 
but little the average value, 8.5°, found by Manouvrier for 72 European tibize 
(French) (1893, p. 236). The described curvature of the thigh bone, as well as 
of the tibia, by enlarging the space for the flexure muscles of the upper and lower 
part of the leg, facilitates squatting; this is so self-evident that one might consider 
whether this habit did not contribute to the increase of those curvatures. 

Also the low position of the condylus medialis tibiz seems to be more common 
among ‘primitive ‘peoples (plate 96, fig. 1). 


HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 459 


The relief of the bone is well elaborated, the crista interossea standing clearly 
out, especially in its upper part. In front and parallel with it there runs a depres- 
sion through the proximal two-thirds, which shows itself also in the cross-section 
(fig. 494, b). There is scarcely an indication of a crista posterior. 

The measurement of the torsion angle gave 26°; but in view of the extremely 
great variability of this characteristic it can scarcely have racial importance. 

That these upper and lower leg bones come from the same individual is so 
certain that I may base on it an investigation. If we compare the length of the 
tibia with that of the femur, we find a femoro-tibial index of 84.9. In doing 
this we have measured the length of the tibia without the spina intercondy- 
loidea, but have included the malleolus, and have used the length of the femur 
in its natural position. Ina similar manner the following values were found: 


Purapeans (Topinard)... ... ve. s. ose 80.8 | Andamanese (Flower)................ 84.5 
iiropeans(hlowef): ie.kt od cose ae es 3 S21 Nevroesi(Hmmphtey hy rs cies ec ce eee 84.7 
Pregians (Mattiny Giese 5 ov cease ce mss Somom MeAtStraanss(MIOWeE)ie te cele inc ie < ols.0) 5 84.9 


For Senoi Martin found (1905, p. 642), by applying the condylo-astragal length 
of the tibia and using the results of Turner, Duckworth, Annandale, and Robinson, 
a mean value of 81.7. If we apply the method of these authors we shall have 
an index of 82.8. The race to which this Anau individual belonged is to be called 
moderately dolichocnemic; that is, the lower leg is relatively long in proportion 
to the length of the thigh, a peculiarity which presents itself as a primitive charac- 
teristic not only in that it occurs more often in primitive races, but especially 
because the new-born European has also a relatively long lower leg. 

Of the fibule we have unfortunately only a few short fragments from which 
but few inferences can be drawn as to their complete form. Therefore we content 
ourselves with the presentation of a statement of the absolute measurements, 
which will be found in the appended tables. These bones also show that sharply 
expressed modeling which seems to be a characteristic of these Anau individuals. 

The talus also shows several points of interest. In the first place the consid- 
erable development in width. If with Leboucq (1902, p. 144) we take the length 
of the talus from the highest elevation of the head to the sulcus pro musculo 
flexori hallucis longo =100, then the width from the lateral point of the fibular 
facet to the most medial point of the processus posterior left =82.5. This index 
amounts, according to Leboucq, in the mean among Europeans to 77.0. Martin 
found it for Senoi =79.5 and 80.9. The Spy talus has 91 (Leboucq). Thus we 
find here, too, an approach in this Anau skeleton to primitive forms. Next, the 
narrowing of the trochlea at the posterior end. According to Volkov’s deter- 
minations this narrowing seems to belong in a higher degree to primitive races. 
Also among new-born Europeans it is strongly marked. If, according to Volkov’s 
method (1903, p. 695), we take the anterior width as roo, the relative width of the 
posterior end is among— 


New-born Europeans...:......esse0+. OL ay cers OVAIOS F016 2. vale s key 6 elses =e 79.0 
Wa panese, MUalES Are sielasiaetlereels siete le AMS ao ly MesiAtsmiAleS mcrae sister es)e'e's cheers) = 79.4 
Negritos; malesacccs acne tm e Orne ects Aen Tel USKAIN OSIM ALES Heres, «aise iene slolene.es = © 6 80.3 
ANIStralians ptrlales erties a eierateters) oetste eas Ae a ES ODCRNS EMALCS i.e vis fo is vias «Wess Sra3 


Melanesians stialessan we fisctcie iets: Gee MIE OLOES SINGLE ercia's. ch ons a6 0s «tas 60,85 81.9 
Weddas = males eects sritewn sarectcuste sts ots hee 


460 HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 


The same index for the trochlea of our Anau talus on both sides amounts 
to 79.4. The narrowing is therefore somewhat more pronounced than in adult 
Europeans, but does not attain any exceptional degree. 

On the other hand the Anau talus differs in another characteristic considerably, 
not only from Europeans, but also from all other races concerning which we have 
the results of investigations, viz, in the angle by which the axis of the neck and 
head differs from the longitudinal axis of the trochlea (plate 96, fig. 2). For 
this angle Volkov (1903, p. 706) gives the following values: 


Negroes, sales Fateecr owe wee nree ter aye Hskimos;-males (ere as dees au ier -) he 
Melanesians males #2... eee ne cole 23.4°) Weddas, males... waiacceitine senetetnts 20° 
Nepritos, malesac omelet rents ceo 23° Patagonians) imales seeac cet oieini ie ceils 20° 
Eitesians? malesey arene ere eee ee 237 Europeans, males. bie dees 0s vaean at iy ice 


In Anau I the deviation of the neck for both sides is 31°; it is therefore higher 
than the average of any of the races enumerated. But even individual values 
as high as this were found by Volkov only in new-born children, where he measured 
angles up to 35°. The values given for Japanese up to 47° are clearly wrong, 
since the mean is stated as 19° and the minimum as 28°. Still, Adachi found among 
Japanese a mean of 19°, but individual variations up to 32°. Thus the Anau 
talus takes an extreme position in this clearly primitive characteristic, only 
Japanese occasionally showing as high a divergence. 

The torsion of the head of the talus is important, because the transversal 
arching of the foot is in part dependent on it. According to Volkov’s investiga- 
tions (1904, p. 320) its values form an increasing series: 


New-born Europeans...........+.++%. 16..5°) (Negroes... 5). <0) dante oie oe 36° 
Neégtitos tt etka oe ene eee 34° Japanése ye ise ts aie eens cae eens 39° 
Melanesiansimiie. «caches ree ee Sno EMO peas sc... s'90.4n pind tae veel oe 49° 


In the Anau talus the torsion is less than in any of the races investigated by 
Volkov, 30° to 33°, and is therefore a primitive characteristic of high importance. 

The calcaneus also shows peculiarities which differ from that of the European. 
Its sustentaculum tali is very strongly developed; as Volkov has shown ‘the 
lower races’’ form in this respect “‘a real transition between the foot of the anthro- 
poids and the foot of the European.”’ Plate 96, fig. 3, shows this difference. 

Still another characteristic is to be seen in this figure, one that points to a 
slight height of the arch of the foot. The joint-surface of the calcaneus intended 
for the cuboid is more wide than high, and, looked at from below, is less visible 
than in the European, because it stands more vertical in relation to the longitu- 
dinal axis of the calcaneus. The wide, low form of this joint-surface is especially 
striking in Anau I. We find in this a breadth-height index for both sides of 62.5, 
while 5 Europeans gave a mean value of 92.0. 

The anterior inner joint-surface for the talus on the left is divided into two 
separate facets, while on the right these are connected by a narrow isthmus. 

The right naviculare is very thick on its medial edge; on the lateral, on the other 
hand, itis narrow. An index which we calculate, taking the thickness at the inner 
edge as 100, amounts to 47.4. It is interesting to compare this with the figures 
given by Volkov (1904, p. 38) as shown at top of next page. 


HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 461 


Weddas smyales 2. oe 0isn/cn vans ons aes AAT Ome apanese sinales were vee he i 5am 
PROPRIA AUAICS sere San a de Coons 45 INGPTILOS witaleseer npr te een oc see we 54.5 
Negroes, maleseym orth tec to Aceon meAtistrallanswmalesan) se ee eee. 54.8 
Polyn€siaus, ‘males .2 06 o..2.259 ess enjea ea Srie Maroneats-<ales . 0.26. cele ke, 56.4 
Melanesians, MAES eee tre ee ee Soa saieearavoilians tales se eon, oe 60.9 
IReKviAnSemialeSrgy site aera alae te Rae ORE EL ORTUIOS., TMALOGS (latin go Yes ae tie. 63.8 


The index calculated by us belongs therefore with the lowest; the naviculare 
has a form which seems to belong more often in general to the primitive races. 

The shape of the joint-surface which articulates with the talus is also worthy 
ofremark. It shows that more ovally rounded form that Volkov ascribes especially 
to primitive races. The relation of the height to the width is 74.2. Volkov 
(1904, p. 46) found for: 


New-born Europeans ............000. 67 INecroes; males arn erie en oe ret, oe 82.2 
Peruvians sinalesy warm comer a. sae noe V2eom MMElANeSians: Males... cos oe nee ek 83.5 
INGOTICOS PIMAlES wee eee soe cece cee Ora MELO peans aMaleSse os accrme fase ee: 84.2 
Japaneses inalesmerns ee nick «cients cieiie> 7 SOMO NESAticn IMAlCS crea srs shore 6 es once ob 86.9 
PESKANIOS  SUSICS eS oo oe (ae an Oates es 8 os 80.0 


This index also approaches the primitive forms. 

In cuneiforme I we are especially interested in the difference in its height 
at its proximal and distal ends. The last measures according to Volkov (1904, 
p- 204) in percentage of the proximal among: 


BO UTO PEARS ATIAIES are tei, ele eaters lotare tore av D2 To aN CRTICOS WIMAlCS treats. Sacco, sits veces ec 6 2's 139.5 
Neoroesoialesmae ye seein. ences 3 > L2GHOM MASI Alans sMtales sate seve sce 'sie renee 140.9 
Melanesians mmales ses etter Cees 6 027/57 


We find for this index a value of 160.0, which, if inserted in this table, would 
range beyond the most primitive forms. It would perhaps be more appropriate to 
bring the two joint-surfaces into relation with each other; the proximal would then 
measure 56.7 per cent of the distal. 

The slender form of the metatarsus (plate 96, fig. 4) shows itself most clearly 
in the relation of the epiphysis width to the length. Since for comparison we 
have to use the investigations of Volkov, we must, in calculating the indices, 
choose the length taken by him, which reaches from the middle of the upper 
edge of the proximal joint-surface to the posterior edge of the first phalanx. 
Though we do not have this, it is not difficult to say how far it may have extended, 
and we shall not be far out of the way in assuming a measurement of 61 mm. 
for the right and 60 mm. for the left. The index for the basal width would then 
be for the right 31.1. Volkov (1904, p. 238) finds for: 


Melanesianss mialesia. a.laccs secs es cle PITS eta PANESE, BIOS <n one ek ve ceases 2220 
Anstralians @inales sae ecda oe ce sees s AL aT BNC OFOCS WINGIeOS mr tne cee ce aie cietncoia = BaN7, 
Previan$, miles oe cs ee ens Aol CaAtavOntaNs aIMalese area vile 6 ws o,- 6.0 = 35.6 
Polynesiansy males tc. reesei sees S2r 7m OULOPeans Males. rere.) siel«') poe <fa) sche 36.0 
New-born: Buropeans 3... osc. 0. c. dees Banal eritvia ns emales. aisusie.c aie chelaisic's «i ale = 40.6 


Our metatarsus as regards its basis belongs to the most slender forms, as we 
find them especially among primitive races. On the other hand the capitulum, 
with an index of width 40.0 right, 39.3 left, is not more narrow, but rather some- 
what broader than is usual among Europeans; Volkov found for this, mean values 
from 33.6 among the Weddas to 45.5 among Eskimos; the mean value for Euro- 
peans is given by him as 38.6. 


462 HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 


INDIVIDUAL II. 


The bones of this individual repeat in almost all points the forms found in 
individualI. Still, the development of thickness is more accentuated. This makes 
itself evident, for instance, in the length-breadth index of the talus, which amounts 
here to 86.8 and is therefore still: higher than in individual I. The torsion of the 
head is still less; the foot was therefore probably still less arched. The diver- 
gence of the neck and head is almost as strong as in I; it amounts to 29°. 

In the calcaneus the anterior inner joint-surface for the talus is as in individual 
I divided into 2 facets, of which the posterior one, lying on the widely projecting 
sustentaculum tali, is especially large. The joint-surface for the cuboid has also 
that more vertical position, but is, however, higher than in individual I; still here, 
too, the width-height index of only 71.9 remains far behind that of the European. 


INDIVIDUAL III. 


What interest us most here are the pieces of the tibize, of which unfortunately 
only the distal parts are preserved. ‘The left reaches fortunately just to the fora- 
men nutritivum, so that we can form an opinion of the lateral flattening. The 
index cnemicus amounts, at the height of the foramen nutritivum, to 66.7; it 
shows, therefore, a moderate platycnemism, but far from the degree shown in tibia 
I. Here, too, the index diminishes from above downward, so that the flattening 
in the middle of the diaphysis is still somewhat more marked than higher up. 
The index at this point amounts to 64.5. 

Here we find again on the lower end the joint-facet produced by squatting 
on the anterior surface, which corresponds with a facet on the lateral swelling 
of the talus. The last is not, however, connected with the normal joint-surface 
of the trochlea, but is separated from it by a depression of the neck. 

Of the fibula we have the lower half. It resembles wholly in the form of its 
malleolus that of individual I. The cross-section through its middle (fig. 494, g) 
is interesting, as it shows the strikingly wide posterior surface in contrast to the 
narrow one in the European (fig. 494, h). 

The angle of the talus-head with the longitudinal axis of the trochlea is large 
here also, a proof that we did not have to do with individual variations in the 
cases of individuals I and II. 

INDIVIDUAL IV. 


Unfortunately we have only some metatarsi; one can see from these that 
they probably belonged to a more solidly built person. The metatarsi I are con- 
siderably broader in proportion to length than in individual I. The index of 
basis width to length (measured as on individual I) amounts to 34.5 left and 36.4 
right. On the other hand the breadth index of the capitulum is 40.0, the same 
as on individual I. 

INDIVIDUAL V. 

Of this there are only 3 bones: a piece of the right femur, the right metatarsus 
I, and the right metatarsus II. The reasons for associating the three pieces have 
been given above. 


HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 463 


The femur seems very small and graceful alongside of the same one from 
individual I (plate 94, fig. 2). Also the modeling does not stand out nearly as 
sharply. It evidently comes from a small female individual, who was, however, 
fully grown; for there is no trace of epiphysis line. The curvature of the dia- 
physis can not be well estimated, because the lower part is missing. It seems to 
have been somewhat less than in individual I. The strongest curvature of the 
preserved part amounts on a length of about 8 cm. to 1.7. There is here also a 
slight pilaster formation, as is shown in the cross-section taken at the middle of 
the diaphysis (fig. 494, e). The index of this point amounts to only 108.3. The 
upper end of the diaphysis is flattened somewhat more in the sagittal direction 
than that of individual I, so that one can speak of a moderate platymerism (I= 
76.7). Both trochanters are unfortunately broken off. It is also not possible 
to determine whether there was a trochanter tertius. The collum shows almost 
as strong a torsion as in individual I, about 30°. The caput is somewhat less 
round, but still in its sagittal diameter hardly 1 mm. narrower than in the vertical. 

The metatarsus I has a still higher index of length and basis width, — 38.8, 
which thus exceeds the mean for Europeans. The width index of the capitulum 
(about 40) is, on the other hand, the same as that of Anau I. 


A comparative study of the bones of children from Anau promises little result, 
as long as detailed investigations of the child-skeleton are wanting. Only two 
femora, which seem to belong to a child 13-14 years old, present some interest. 
Already on these are indicated the features that characterize the grown man: 
curvature, pilaster-formation (fig. 494,/), slight platymerism, trochanter III, slender 
form suddenly widening out at the lower epiphysis (plate 94, fig. 3). 


Lastly some remarks as to the presumable size of the separate individuals. 

Using Manouvrier’s tables, we calculate the height of individual I from the 
two femora to be 170 cm., from the right tibia 170.2 cm. The height of this man 
can therefore be estimated about 170 cm. 

For individual III we find the probable length of the whole tibia from the 
lower end to the foramen nutritivum =349 mm., and the presumable bodily height 
would be 161 cm. 

The height of individual V, the smallest of all, may be approximately estimated 
from the size of the piece of the femur. If we determine the probable middle point 
of diaphysis and compare its distance from the femur-head with the corresponding 
distance in individual I, we obtain for the whole length a measurement of about 
378 mm., which would correspond to a bodily height of about 149 cm. If we 
assume the maximum range of error in estimating the middle point (1 cm. each 
way), the minimum length of the femur calculated from this range of values 
would be 361 mm. and the maximum 396 mm. These values would give heights 
respectively of 142 and 156 cm. If we take into consideration the fact that Man- 
ouvrier’s tables are probably apt to err in the direction of diminishing the height 
of small individuals, we shall not make our women too high if we decide on 150 cm, 


464 HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 


Determination of the heights of the other individuals is not possible, because 
we have not, even for Europeans, the correlation of the measurements of the bones 
of the foot with bodily size. Still, we can judge from the size of these bones that 
the height of individual II was between that of I and III, while individual IV stood 
between III and V. Therefore, Anau I is to be considered above the average 
and Anau V relatively small. 

Since it is customary to look everywhere for pygmies, we might attempt 
also to construct a dwarf race out of our individual V. ‘There are, however, several 
obstacles. In the first place there are no differences present that would warrant 
our assigning individual V to a different race from individual I. In the next place 
the difference between V and I may be due to a considerable range in size, such 
as we find among many races. A further reason for considering this the correct 
explanation is that we fortunately have intermediate forms, which constitute an 
unbroken series. We realize this best when we place side by side the preserved 
metatarsi I of at least four individuals. In plate 96, fig. 4, the missing meta- 
tarsus I of individual II is replaced by a bar of its presumable height. 

A satisfactory comparison, or even a racial diagnosis, is naturally impossible 
in view of the scanty material at hand; all the more so since in the bones of the 
extremities functional influences come so strongly into action that it is difficult 
to distinguish between peculiarities due to such functional action and those inherent 
in the race. 

But even if we disregard all those characteristics for which a functional 
cause is thinkable, there remains still a number which can with great probability 
be traced back to the race, and which differentiates these Anau individuals at 
least from the recent European, with whose skeleton we are better acquainted 
than with that of other races, and assign it to a primitive form. More we can not 
say from a study of the bones at hand. The problem would be much more simple 
if more abundant material, especially skulls of adults,should be found. This seems 
to be a possibility, for the condition of the preserved pieces allows us to assume 
with certainty that there are preserved many more of these interesting bone 
remains than have been collected. 


PLATE 94. 





Fic. 1. Right femur, Anau I, from lateral side. 
2. Right femur, a, Anau I; 6, Anau V. 
3. Left femur of child, III 865, from behind. 
4 Lower end of femora, a, Neandertal man; 6, Anau I; c, a recent European. 





PLATE: 95. 





Fic. 1. Upper end of femora from behind, a, Anau I; b, a recent European. 
2. Head of left tibia of Anau I from lateral side. 
3. Facet, a, on anterior side of left tibia, and b, on neck of talus of AnauI. ‘The joint 
surface is bordered by a black line. 
4. Lower epiphyses of the femora of Anau I; a, left, from lateral; b, left, right, from 
medial side; with representation of the ‘‘Bandradien.’”’ 
5. Tibia of Anau I from medial side. 





i 


J ye ab one e. 


PLATE 96. 














Fic. 1. Uppet end of tibia, a, Spy I; b, Anau I; c, recent European. 
2. Left talus, a, recent European; b, Anau I. 
3. Calcaneus from below, a, recent European; 6, Anau I. 
4, Metatarsi I of individualsI, III, IV, V. ‘The presumable length of Metatarsus I 
of individual II is represented by a bar. 





HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 465 


Table of dimensions in millimeters. 

















if Ill 
Femur. 
Right. Left. Right. 
Ta Greatest OLalvien ol in pweern ara meiiee oh a ueikers nc eh ce ok «oe 472 482 
Mb steaveat treater len gel dhe co 5.cis th anda as sc iP tien salve was - 456 463 
Sebo aiiempth: im mapiral pasition.. is .s eck eee cece ces 470 478 
ai rochanter length im natural position... 0.50... . cen es ee ess 448 452 
4a. Lengthafter Virchow : from trochanter major to condylus ext. 447 453 
= Léngth ot diaphysis aiter Bumiiller.... 2... 00 ds ce eee 403 406 
aoe eupti on diaphyers ater Martin... ic ee cee eles ewes 382 388 Sah 
6. Sagittal diameter of middle of diaphysis.................... 34 34 26 
eee Rf adteVCh eG OIAINGLET OL SAIC I aces aaae oe cc cence eaves ees ws 28 28 24 
8. Index of diaphysis section at middle (No.6:No.7) ........ I2Us4 120s 108.3 
Sreircumperence Gt Nude Of Cia pL YSIS. | oi cae. sc ea ce ees 100 97 7 
10. Length-thickness index after Manouvrier (No. 9: No. 3).... 21.3 20.3 
1od. Length-thickness index after Bumiiller (No. 9: No. 5)...... 24.8 23.9 
Mim pper sApittal diameter or GiapiySise...cceces se. sis ccc cs os 29 28 Shes 
iu pper transverse diameter Of diaphysis...cs.<<+ecsiees ss 34 34 30 
13. Index of upper diaphysis cross-section (No. 11 : No. 12)........ 85-3 in 76.7 
14. Circumference of upper diaphysis cross-section.............. 102 101 86 
TomiLowersarittal lateral diameter of diaphysis. 2... ..2-..-.+ 2 - 2 33 
16. Lower sagittal diameter of diaphysis in medial plane........... 2 2 
i7oev ower transverse diameter of diapliysis.........2.25...0006-- AT7 47 
Romeo webssarittalindexs (NGA TO SING: 6)ie oe cee ccs cscs te as = 70.6 70.6 
MP LOWEeLELLAMSVeLSe IGEXa (NOsr7 sINOs 7)\eeceiscee sae cc0 5 sc © erates 16.8 
Bom iaea popieenis (NO. £6 2 NO. TZ). acct sence es ot lees ete. 51.1 | ey 
ca en RIOR WHOLIS OL TOME Pers. alas tein oo bc cb ck Sed clea soe cee 94 | 98? 
Zio.) Upper width of femur after Martin .....,........2..00...- 2 go? 
Le LE OA LD DEL ePID VSIS.2 0. 5 s.c.c% 26 vs cs so sees ho Foss 102 IOI Sei 
pomGreatest vertical diameter Of Colltim. ce .c.c ca ce ss mesa e « 36 35 27, 
2A Least sagittal diameter of collum.:.............- Pe eae etetae 26 25 20 
25. Index of collum cross-section (No. 24 :.No. 23).............;. 22 ghey TAL 
SOMCILCIIMETENCEI Ol COLUM nay ei eies bate a cules Rees ease? s 3 ess 103 | 100 80 
per CIOL ROLICA DUCE seicemere  Sevehel ols eis teia a0) ss 4 20 hele hae ta ae 49 49 40 
BEV UROLGCA DIL eeaera ete enacts eae cr ne © cacsins effin abel a esis 49 | ae of 39 
Bee ee TIO CNG. Bey PINOy 27) 00's ete Cre «le oie ls & Gan 84 ae eee ene 100 eet: 75 
POMCITCUINTELCNCE OL CAPUL auitaicii smc sels air ees +o es cee og ous 158 | eae 126 
preelencti or collumand caput after Koranel....2....6-sss00«s 73 7a Ae 
Seems OMDCRIREL Se TNOAILE CL ei ita Vic aN kin Ghee ans kwon re ee eee os 88 87 
33. Thickness resp. length of condylus lateralis................. 65 | 65 
Sem COM VL Ceie xaINOl 33 MN Or, 32) cree sie ets cla-sncsaiginiiues Guise) wees siege) FAT 
35. Index diaphysis width : epicondyle width (No. 7 : No. 32).... Belts | BD 
36. Index epicondyle width : diaphysis length, after Bumiiller | 
GNoae cee ES pincnmin mre ert ier oiin, cv wittiaie aes coe Ola falel og Venn 21.8 | 21.4 
Pieamacura: lett. OF Condyius lateralise 0... <2 vacmns oad 65 S08 « 66 | 65 
RomeNaLurallenstmormcondylus medialis... ...s ences sts ccc ere « « 63 64 
Bom Condvievenounsinidexi wt omiirs curate a: ties oe oe sie trercle. o. era 104.7 IOI .7 
poe vertical. wpoanaradien, lateral (i voces xs silo sw se eden s vee 6 21 21 
Ailonzontal se pondraaren. lateralis. ce ee cis © ae cies ees 6 + a 24 24 
fouwettical” Bandraden,”> medial s gos cia tale evs dha dba bce en 28 
ma metiorizouta, pandradien,” medial). ose es fe cade pews es. 35 Saar 
Mem INGexTOlateralewOONdy Adlets «aie 6 «eettie seis tie aids ou oe sles S75 87.5 
Aree IG eRNOL MCCA MeO WOVUALLIE « mevnle viele isrsiaie viel vie eis see ¢0ine fv 80 ee a8 
46. Joint circumference of condylus lateralis................++: 115 114 
47. Joint circumference of condylus medialis.................+: 104 106 
PESTER OSL IMIG Ve WICC oie) ccce dete cies anlk ae cee A ely = xe eae ae Sn 82 | 81 
Mom ELIS MteOl CONG VANS ALCLALIShp a rnianiaic Sele <ie ace ves ee eee a7 37 
BOmEeigit OMmCONG Wits MeCIAlIS: mis see sate sieve stealer s/s se oie ieie on «0s 4I 4I 
Brent OM Cia pliySicCuLVat tern cts oreo cine Oeics) <i aTele > cule a> ie 69 66 
52. Index of diaphysis curvature, after Manouvrier (No, 51: No.2). T Set ae LARS ere 
53. Strongest diaphysis curvature (reciprocal value of radius)..... 4? 4 Be 
AME ATL CLEZOT LOL SION Mere aenctereriNeysict chats. costeve © are, sal Shela cue lerapelies a) weer 262 28° eta 
ee OLN) “Clb VIS BUS LO irre Ate CEC? pip wd eae 5 2 oaks 6s 5 4d od ees 135 138 133 
Ow ORE CICADAS ANON... cm tu shad vas ats ch cals s drae nee he 9° nigra 
yume Oe stort nn ie. OF COLUM: Git a ON inle ovis Aves « sedan Ne oa gwd = S30 33° ca. 30° 
i Semrt OLeTOb ited ODT Ui ee tee ar cceters ie aoe cia, wusicl ose ol aa seo eiecel dm. 19° T7o 20° 

















466 HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 


Table of dimensions in millimeters —Continued, 




























































































; if Il 
Pelvis. Lett. Left. 
ti Vertical diameter ot meetabulisoiians tee eee eer rare tens 57 Ret 

2. From posterior edge of joint-socket, to incis. ith... sn. ce ene t see on 40 % 
3. Thickness Of tuber 2155 < bcaies e's > vie aevn kobe © poeccate onan yee aeons len eee <a 29 
4. Greatest diameter of vertical branch of os ischii....................... tetas 34 

I Sr 
Tibia. 
Right. Left. Right. Left. 
Length: 
hs (a) Point of spina intercond. to point of malleolus 
AMEOTIUS! Pause aa cheats «Feito se esnietersnenetrl a 405 

2. (b) Medial joint-surface to point of malleolus internus | 398 

ok (c) Middle of medial joint-surface to base of malleolus 
Piha poll Brame som meme cao coms ced LidoewD bo Gadd 389 sents 

4. Greatest proximalepipliysis widt lasek itty steak Sere)’ 80 

5. Greatest depth) of proximal epiphysis... vi Paes 55 

6. (Greatest, diameteriatituberositaci cnet tiet tree nee 52 52 

7. Least diameter at: tiberositass. 2.1.2.6 <2 ue oer 31 31 Cae 5 aA 

8. Greatest diameter at foramen nutritivum............... 39 a ayer Pare 32 

g. Transverse diameter at foramen nutritivum.............. 24 ere Skee 22 
TO; Index CHENMICHSE. 5 stares ite ss tects arate rte ere nee tee eee O15 hades sdijiets 66.7 
11. Greatest diameter in middle of diaphysis:......-0--.-:+-« 36 a ee yigre 31 
12. Transverse diameter in middle of diaphysis............... 22 ects Sees 20 
13. Index of diaphysis cross-section in middle................ Ore t at stege 64.5 
14.. Greatestidistal epiphysis widths. mieten ies 57 56 49? 

15. Greatest depth of distal epiphysis7 ci 61st 42 41 40 ¥i SR 
16. Circitmierence at foramen nutri... 2s. -)t eles iris 103 Sees ee 87 
17. Circumference in middle Of diapbysiSe ecmmite cate tere 95 ents aie 82 
78; Least: circumilerencehqcs = mein ate eisai ene etn eens 86 84 75 76 
mee - Il. UI. 
Right. | Left. | Tet) Bagtee 

1; Lotal length (after V OlkOV) escrciie iste teeter 62? 62 59 

2; Total height... fimis adamen. veninie wine cid Coe ies eee caer aA 33 

2. Length ‘oftrochica: was net onthe iene shelve a te teen ects 30 29 32 

Aa POstenor width. of trochleaer crsmimiri ttt tier erates rete 27¢ 2, ewe snes 

5. Anterior width) OfstrochlGani mraae eaters sk) teri neni 34 34 34 29 

6. Width of whole jomt-guriac€ o...29)s.c1us's ee oe ie 43 41 40 35 

7. Projected length of articulatio talo-fibularis............. 32 31 a ee wee 

8, Lengthwot lower posterior facetra ae, tiie tee ee Paes 35 36? 

9. Mean width of lower posterior facet............-....... 20 21 22 oe 
10, Length of neck? 2. cic. se © ala One ein ee ee 20 22 18 13 
It. Height. of jomt-surtacetof head 2233 ypc en sii iets oe 24 24 23 20 
12.) Width ofmomt-surtace of head iy eta ete ioe 34 31 33 32 
13. Divergenceangle'ol Ihead\iia.5 ere siete eee teenie ee ane 31° 29° 25. 
14. ‘Lorsion ‘of head ick ce none eee eee tent ane 335 30° 

Calcaneus. : ee ae 
Right. Left . oe 

ts. Total lengthy, ssc sais Soe pee reac ha aa ee eee 87 87 82 76 

2., Posterior Width... s dite ners bi om s cinte erase ie teeta eats oie 34 36 36 ae 

36 Meant: width oe .sicc otece o susteayels ehctee ioe inie felicia tetne eeet ne 45 45 48 

4. Length of sustentacthuni tala. se ee irene te 5 16 14 Sane 

5. Length of body on kein sce sisi eietsicie ceed eee Rete ee 65 67 64 57 

6. Least. width. 2% sc. ch Sere eetlae Gee eo eine eens 27 27 a7 oe 

75 Aeast, height ny. 2% oe tare ate eee cists helen eters terete eee 40 4I 39 36 

8. Height of insertion of Achilles tendon above bottom..... 25 24 22 24 

9. Greatest width of faciescuboidea y..), aera eine ins 32 32 32 
10. ‘Greatest height of sate ms wech int eee eee rere ee 20 20 23 











HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 467 


Total dimensions in millimeters.—Continued. 


























: LE 
Naviculare. Right. 
ERM CES ENE Hoe, OPEC OIA SIE gen aH ges alias 2/2) salala/ al ie WiAow, Main) eke lore ly-SiabsnavdcP ee Siva d Dials ove 9 
BM ee Cot eimi@r sik MALEE AN GLUE: stsiets hn asa ae FR alsa cly's em sin Be eve +o STS oo ack sgow ade wae 19 
ME CA en SINC OL Olde COIALIS fa, cacy Ai ve ie nts vs wie Abs oie vA re et oie oo ne ea eeheerns & 31 
aeiameter Or facies talatis perpendicular to formed...) on cee en ec lince ncecesevcncece De 
; Ir 
Cuneiforme I. Right, 
SRE ree at Uiah LOWE? GULC), Clee «earns aids tx ce ie ciple abe cdi wise ede ads alga so vis eeaa os 28 
el erat itl ete, PAtANEL 1G LOWEF CU SE wis c 5's o'c.e cress wis do. 3s occ vue vie bid sme a cles al ¥ 25 
Pee CIAC MOTEL 9 ETE CG O Clune es wete me Ptt le eto Mert Uae ale te «esi ein oes 16 dis ev Ars, s, @ ees ecere-a. ol Svs 27 
MMCLCALCS tu etO ie AIR CISt AlCl seem mer nAer errata reo eet cect ei ric/cie tects eet oo eieicva tor 32 
ee ReeeEE Ct eH ae PECKING CH, om Ges a Pe nie dae oeiks Soir eiele Pesos ee twee Vase bees 20 
Renee POR Migl al IOIRtscUTIOCE A. o nee okie Ae pace ho sighs cas asi rigs as Vs va'ee ee beanies bee 30 
Bee eRe ceOL DIQRMNIAL (UINESUCIECE yk re bss sore eis ls ees esa poet ence een ches ek ees 17 
I Ill IVE Vv 





Metatarsus I. 





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MGLEALESE LENOt Heer rreiecitiets histo eisai ent ah. Waee 65 62 63 56 
2. Length perpendicular to proximal joint- 
SUeCON ere na Races cis wie hers chor cinte lave wit 70 er 61 59 60 53 
Pesinallest capital diameter sn. a. ce e 13 rr II II II II 
Weastitransverse diameter. -- 6. ccs s oe 14 300 13 14 14 13 
Width of diaphysis (after Volkov)........ 16 15 14 15 14 14 
Sagittal diameter of proximal epiphysis.... 30 reeks 30 28 29 26 
‘Transverse diameter of same............. 19 eee ate 20? 19 19 
. Sagittal diameter of capitulum........... Yeh Te 23 19 20 20 16 
meGreatest width olreapitilum 3.0... 0.2... 24 24? BOR 22 22 20? 
. Sagittal arch of joint-surface of head...... 39 40 33 34 32 25 
PeetiretOm Dl HeAC ecihw. Wie re o5, c ale bra were s 87° mens 96° 84° 80° 85° 























468 HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Avacut, B. AND Y. Die Fussknochen der Japaner. Mitteilungen der medizin. Fakultat der kaiserl. 
Japan. Universitat, Tokio, Bd. v1, 1905, pp. 308-344. 

BUMULLER, J. Das menschliche Femur. Inaug.-Diss. Miinchen, 1899. 

Fiscuér, E. Die Variationen an Radius und Ulna des Menschen. Zeitschr. f. Morphologie und Anthro- 
pologie, Bd. 1x, 1906, pp. 147-247. _ 

FLower, W. H. On the osteology and affinities of the natives of the Andaman Islands. Journ. of the 
Anthropol. Institute, vol. 1x, 1880, pp. 108-135. 

KvaatscH, H. Die wichtigsten Variationen am Skelet der freien unteren Extremitat des Menschen. 
Ergebnisse der Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte, Bd. x, 1900, pp. 599-719. 

KoGaneEr. Beitrage zur physischen Anthropologie der Aino. Mitt. der mediz. Fakultat d. kaiserl. Japan. 
Universitat, Tokio, Bd. u, 1893, pp. 1-249. 

Lesoucg. Ueber prahistorische Tarsusknochen. Verh. d. Anat. Gesellsch. Halle, 1902, pp. 143-145. 

LEHMANN-NITSCHE, R. Ueber die langen Knochen der siidbayerischen Reihengraberbevélkerung. Beitr. 
z. Anthropol. und Urgeschichte Bayerns, Bd. x1, 1894, pp. I-92. 

MANovuvrikgr, L. Mémoire sur la platyenémie chez l’homme et chez les anthropoides. Mém. de la Soc. 
d’Anthropologie, II Sér., vol. 111, 1888, pp. 470-548. 

MANovvrikgr, L. Etude sur la rétroversion de la téte du tibia. Mém. de la Soc. d’Anthropologie, II Sér., 
vol. Iv, 1893, pp. 219-264. 

MANOUVRIER, L. Etude sur les variations morphologiques du corps du fémur dans l’espéce humaine. 
Bull. de la Soc. d’Anthropologie, IV Sér., vol. Iv, 1893, pp. 111-144. 

MANouvrigr, L. La détermination de la taille d’aprés les grands os des membres. Mém. de la Soc. 
d’Anthropologie, II Sér., vol. Iv, 1893, pp. 347-402. 

Martin, R. Zur physischen Anthropologie der Feuerlander. Arch. f. Anthropologie, Bd. xx, 1894, 
pp. 155-218. 

MarTIN, R. Die Inlandstanme der Malayischen Halbinsel. Jena, 1905. 

SARASIN, P. and F. Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftl. Forschungen auf Ceylon. III. Die Weddas von 
Ceylon. Wiesbaden, 1893. 

THomson, A. The influence of posture on the form of the articular surfaces of the tibia and astragalus 
in the different races of man and the higher apes. Journ. of Anat. and Physiol., vol. xxmr, 1889, pp. 
616-639. 

Tuomson, A. Additional note on the influence of posture on the form of the articular surfaces of the 
tibia and astragalus. Journ. of Anat. and Physiol., vol. xxiv, 1890, pp. 210-217. 

ToprnarD, P. Anthropologie. Uebersetzung von Dr. R. Neuhauss. Leipzig, 1888. 

Vo.Lkov, TH. Variations squelettiques du pied chez les primates et dans les races humaines. Bull. et 
Mém. de la Soc. d’Anthropologie, V Sér., 1903, pp. 632-708, and V Sér., 1904, pp. 1-50 and 201-331. 








, PART IX. 


By Dr. H. C. ScHELLENBERG, 


Professor in the Federal Swiss Polytechnicum. 


[CHAPTER XXII. PLATE 97.] 


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WHEAT AND BARLEY FROM THE NORTH KURGAN, ANAU. 


CHAPTER XXIII 
THE REMAINS OF PLANTS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN, ANAU. 





My colleague, Dr. Duerst, has sent me for examination some pieces of burnt 
clay and charcoal which he found among the great quantity of bones from the 
excavations of the Pumpelly Expedition, in the North Kurgan at Anau. They 
are: Charcoal from Culture I; charcoal from Culture II; brick from Culture (?). 


CHARCOAL. 


Two different kinds of wood are recognizable among the different small pieces 
of charcoal. Both are dicotyledonous woods; it is, however, not possible to say 
to what particular plants they should be referred. 

Charcoal from Culture I.—A piece of charcoal derived from a branch 4 cm. 
thick shows 5 annual rings. The pith is slender, 2 mm., the separate rings 4 mm., 
thick. The medullary rays are wide, up to 0.2 mm., and all nearly equally thick. 
In the wood, the vessels are distributed evenly through the whole width of the 
annual ring. They attain a diameter of 150 », while they show a mean value of 
120 to 140 #. ‘The boundary of the annual ring is produced by slightly thickened 
cells and is very uniform. This wood must be referred to one of the softer kinds. 
The broad and abundant large vessels recall the structure of the wood of creeping 
and climbing plants. The four pieces of this kind of coal are alike throughout. 

Charcoal from Culture IJ.—Of this there are six different pieces, all alike 
in structure. The largest piece conies from a branch 3.5 cm. thick, having 6 annual 
rings, each 3 mm. wide. The boundary of the rings is very indistinct. The pith 
is very small; the medullary rays are very delicate and all of equal thickness, con- 
sisting of 3 to 6 cell-layers, closely placed and 40 to 60 » wide. In the width 
of the annual ring the vessels are abundantly and uniformly distributed in the 
vernal and autumnal wood. ‘They are small, 60 to 90 » in diameter, often two 
or three inarow. ‘The libriform fibers are strongly developed, with strong thicken- 
ing of the walls; in longitudinal section the libriform fibers show small inclosed 
pores. Plicated libriform occurs also. 

The wood was therefore of a hard variety and belonged probably to a shrub- 
like plant. ‘The occurrence of the inclosed pores in libriform and the plication of 
the libriform indicates that the plant is related to the Rosaceze or Leguminose. 


CRUDE BRICK.* 


We have only one piece of a crude brick 8 cm. long by 6 cm. wide. This 
contains a great quantity of the husks and beards of grain and remains of straw. 
The present condition of the glumes is not favorable for study, since we have 








* Bricks were not burned in Transcaspia before a much later time; this was probably a piece of a 
pot. See appendix to Professor Schellenberg’s report.—R. P, 
471 


472 REMAINS OF PLANTS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN, ANAU. 


only casts in clay of the outside of the pieces. The carbonaceous substance has 
disappeared; only the incombustible part, the.ash, remains in the form of a white 
powder, which we find as we break the specimen and expose the cavities. We 
have therefore to examine both the impressions in the clay and the ash-skeletons 
in the cavities. ; 

These cavities are only the molds left by the hulls and other substances. 
The best way to reproduce the original form is to make casts with putty, which 
gives very fine representations of the original substance. 

From this examination we find that the grain was derived from two plants: 
from a wheat, and from a barley. 

The wheat shows the glumes, glumelles, and hull form that belong to the 
group of Triticum vulgare. ‘There are also present the remains of ear-spikes 
and of straw. The barley is represented by remains that belong certainly to 
Hordeum distichum. Especially characteristic of H. distichum are the side-flowers 
in the ear. Of barley, we find parts of the stalk and of the ear-spikes, very many 
beard-spicules, and very few glumes. The results obtained from the casts are 
confirmed by the study of the ash remains contained in the cavities. We find 
under the microscope the remains of the highly silicated epidermis of these varieties 
of cereals; and especially characteristic is the rippled form of the wall of the 
epidermis cell, which is much thickened. The short cells of the glumelles which 
occur between the long epidermis cells are especially characteristic for distinguish- 
ing between wheat and barley. In wheat the short cells have a circular contour 
with undulated cross-walls. In the silicated substance there are often small 
pores. ‘This form occurs in the epidermis of the glumes and in parts of the stalk. 
I was able to prepare some slides from the ash, which showed these characteristic 
short cells. In many places the silicated substance of the short cells has become 
detached from the epidermis. 

In the barley the short cells of the epidermis are pressed closely together. 
The cells are often so narrow that the Jumen appears only as a fissure. The cross- 
walls on both sides are generally of unequal thickness. I was generally able 
to recognize these characteristic short cells of the barley in the ash-skeletons. 
They do not detach themselves from the tissues, but generally remain connected 
with the remains of the adjoining long cells of the epidermis. Remains of barley- 
beards are very abundant and easily recognizable on the epidermis cells. 

These ash-skeletons included in the brick supply the clearest proof that hulls 
and remains of the stalk were used in preparing the bricks. In consequence of 
the silicification, the characteristic form of the epidermis cells is observable—as in 
this case—even after incineration. It can not be mistaken for anything else. 

While the examination shows that remains of barley and wheat were used in 
mixing the clay,it is only possible, by aid of the casts of the cavities, to determine 
that the wheat belonged to a small form of the common wheat Triticum vulgare 
and that the barley came from the two-rowed form—Hordeum distichum. 

The great number of impressions present in this piece is evidence that these 
plant remains are not there by accident, but that they were intentionally mixed 





REMAINS OF PLANTS FROM THE NORTH KURGAN, ANAU. 473 


with the clay. Further, this occurrence en masse of the remains of cereals shows 
that these grains were cultivated; otherwise it would not have been possible to 
have used such quantities of straw and chaff. 

The state of preservation of the plant remains permits the further inference 
that the piece has been exposed to fire. The carbonaceous substance is burnt. 
The piece offers no evidence as to whether the burning was accidental or not. 
Lastly, it is to be remarked that the seeds of some weeds were contained in the 
brick and have left their impressions in cavities. 


APPENDIX.* 


Potsherd from North Kurgan, West Shajt I, 23 to 24 feet below the plain.—This 
consists of a light-yellow clay. Casts of glumes of wheat are rare; those of the 
stalks are somewhat more frequent. Barley, on the other hand, is especially well 
represented in numerous remains of beards. 

Potsherd from North Kurgan, West Digging —This shows very few casts of 
glumes of wheat, also very few of the stalks and beards. Only a very little chaff 
was used in mixing the clay of this pot. 

Potsherd from North Kurgan, North Digging —Glumes of wheat and beards 
of barley are present in great abundance; both in about equal proportion. The 
separate parts of the glumes and beards are best preserved in this specimen. 

Remains of wheat and barley are present in all three of these potsherds. 
The barley belongs, at least in part, to Hordeum distichum. ‘The species of the 
wheat can not be accurately determined. 





* Since receiving Professor Schellenberg’s report I have examined in Berlin the potsherds from the 
oldest cultures at Anau, and have found that chaff and straw were invariably used in making one, and 
apparently only one, of the varieties of pottery used during the life of the two oldest settlements of the 
North Kurgan. ‘This variety forms the large pots, of coarse texture and painted designs, peculiar only to 
culture I, and is represented in plate 20, fig. 1. 

This pottery is found in all the layers from the bottom to the top of the oldest culture. As the bottoms 
of these pots are from one to two inches thick it is probable that the piece examined for this report was 
from one of these. 

I sent to Professor Schellenberg, from Berlin, a piece of this pottery, from the lowest four feet of cul- 
ture-strata of the oldest culture of the North Kurgan—23 to 24 feet below the surface of the plain—in 
N. K. West Shaft I; and two from higher strata of the same culture. Professor Schellenberg writes the 
results of his examination of these three potsherds as follows.—R. P. 


- = 


——— 


— 





Glumes of wheat in potsherd from Anau, natural size. 


. Particles of barley from potsherds from Anau, 


a, Kernel; b, c, d, e, parts of spikelet-spindle; f, 
side-flowers (taube Bliithen). 


3. Epidermis of glumes of wheat with characteristic 


short cells. Recent. 500. 


. Ash-skeleton of glume of wheat in potsherd from 


Anau. 500. 


5. Silicated substance from short cells of glume of 


wheat in potsherd from Anau. 500. 


Fic. 6. 
ie 

8. 

9. 

10. 


BEA VE Ofc 





Silicated epidermis-cells from glumes of wheat in 
potsherd from Anau. 500. 
Epidermis of barley glumes with characteristic short 


cells. Recent. 500. 
Epidermis of barley beard with characteristic short 
cells. Recent. X500. 


Ash-skeleton from epidermis of barley glumes or 
spikelet-spindle in potsherd from Anau. 500. 

Ash-skeleton from epidermis of barley beard hair in 
potsherd from Anau. > 500. 


Fic. 11, Ash-skeleton of long epidermis-cells in potsherd from Anau, 500. 








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PART X. 


“4 by STONE IMPLEMENTS AND SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN ANAU 


By LANGDON WARNER. 


_ [CHAPTER XXIV. ] 








CHAPTER XXIV. 


REPORT ON THE LARGER STONE IMPLEMENTS OF THE KURGANS 
AT ANAU. 





Of the larger stone implements found in the northern kurgan at Anau and 
not treated of by Dr. Schmidt in his report, there are few types, and those are 
roughly made, common utensils. 

Commonest and most important of all are the flat or gently curved mealing- 
stones on which the household supply of flour was evidently ground. These 
occur at intervals all through the culture-strata, and are sometimes accompanied 
by the muller, a more or less smooth, cylindrical kind of stone, which was rolled or 
rubbed over the flat surface of the larger ones. All the mealing-stones found in 
this kurgan—and they were many—were composed of a fine-grained quartzite 
conglomerate. In form they were the exact counterparts of the ‘‘metates”’ 
used to-day by many Indians of Arizona, New Mexico, and Mexico, to grind their 
wokus and parched corn. It is probable that these were made by cracking apart 
a small quartzite bowlder and rubbing the two new surfaces together till they 
became flat. Then, if the mealing-stone would not stand true, it was either 
chocked up with pebbles under the curve, or in some cases chipped flatter with a 
few blows of a stone maul. I am convinced that when first made, these ‘‘metates’’ 
were perfectly flat, and took on the shallow curve we found in so many only after 
a considerable amount of use; and also that the muller was held fast in the hand, 
and not rolled, for the only two I found, one of which lay on its mealing-stone, 
showed worn facets running longitudinally, which intersected the original curve 
of the cylinder (see fig. 496). 

There were in this kurgan no true mortars for grinding grain or roots, although 
in the southern hill we found almost as many of them as of the flat mealing-stones. 
The single possible exception to this was a barrel-shaped stone 9 inches high, with 
a round depression in one end 2.5 inches deep and 4 inches in diameter (see No. 4, 
fig. 497). My reason for not classing this utensil with the flour mortars of the 
South Kurgan is that, unlike them, the inner edge is sharp and delicate and would 
not allow for the gyroscopic wobbling motion of the pestle which gives the grinding 
crunch so necessary with kernels. It may have been used to powder earths or 
charcoal for colors, or even for ceremonial uses as a mere receptacle. This stone 
was also grooved longitudinally, perhaps for after-use as a weight. In this respect 
it is obviously to be classed with No. 43, fig. 498, found in the South Kurgan. 

Figs. 499 to 504 represent a number of small quartzite dishes or saucers of 
indeterminable use. For the most part they were fairly well finished both inside 
and out, and suggest ceremonial intention. It is hardly possible that the oval 


form would be used for crushing anything, so they must be classed as receptacles, 
477 


478 LARGER STONE IMPLEMENTS OF THE KURGANS AT ANAU. 


Catalogue No. 39 A.N.K. can best be described as a “doughnut-shaped’”’ 
stone of fine-grain quartzite conglomerates» Its diameter is 3 inches and that of 
the hole 0.7 inch (fig. 505). Its use can be only conjectural—perhaps a ceremonial 
mace-head, perhaps a chucking-stone in some game. 

Fig. 506, from +30 feet in terrace 11 of North Kurgan, I have classed with 
figs. 507 and 508 and also with the stones found in the South Kurgan (figs. 509 
and 510). It is a large stone 10 inches by 17 inches by 2.5 inches, weighing 33,3, 
Russian pfund (=13.59 kilos). It has a hole cut near the top to form a handle, 
which is much worn by use. I know of no analogous form among stone implements 




















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Figs. 496-502.—Stone Implements from the Anau Kurgans. Fig. 498 from the South Kurgan, all others from the 
North Kurgan. 


of other countries. Professor Pumpelly suggested the possibility of its use as a 
standard of weight. This seemed the more likely when we came upon other 
smaller stones, all broken, but showing the same form. 

From the loose wash earth of the South Kurgan the workmen took a 
millstone-shaped stone (fig. 511),12 inches in diameter, with a 2.5-inch hole in the 
center. The edges were much scarred and chipped in a manner that could not 
have come from horizontal use against a similar stone; nevertheless, I took it to 
be a more or less modern implement from a Persian mill, of which there were several 
on the little watercourses flowing from the mountains south of our work. 





LARGER STONE IMPLEMENTS OF THE KURGANS AT ANAU. 479 


Fig. 498 (A.S.K. 43) shows an oval stone of great weight, grooved longitudin- 
ally. One can only conjecture its use, but stones not unlike this are used in other 
parts of the world for anchoring the hide roofs of huts, for straightening the green 
wood to be made into bows and lances, and for ceremonial purposes. 

Fig. 512 (A.S.K. 13) shows a fragment of a round stone disk, with a shallow, 
saucer-like depression on one side, across which runs a smooth groove, apparently 
made afterward. This groove on a stone, if found in North America, might be 
thought to be the straightener and polisher for arrow-shafts. 

Fig. 513 (A.S.K. 34) is a shallow saucer, broken, but once evidently oblong 
in shape, with rounded corners. 


508 503 





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Figs. 503-508.—Stone Implements from the North Kurgan. 


Fig. 514 (Spec. Finds Cat. S.K. 325, plate 48, fig. 11) shows three views of 
another disk with the saucer-like depression, and a deep groove running across 
the bottom, not quite intersecting the center. 

Fig. 515 (A.S.K. 42) is the ‘‘door-stone’’ found in place with the rest of the 
threshold in terrace B over skeleton No. 27 (see “ Report on Burials, South Kurgan, 
Anau’’). It was a rough, unshaped piece of fine-grain quartzite conglomerate, 
with the well-defined marks of a swinging pivot that had left ridges in the hole. 
(Cf. Dr. Schmidt’s report.) Several others of this sort were found scattered 


through this digging. 


480 LARGER STONE IMPLEMENTS OF THE KURGANS AT ANAU. 


Fig. 516 shows a stone cupped not unlike a door-hinge stone, but lacking its 
characteristic ridges; these for want of a better term I call “‘cup-mortars.”’ 

The pestles and mullers of the South Kurgan show many more diversities in 
form than the simple cylinder of the northern. Figs. 517 to 524 show the shapes 
found. Fig. 524 (Spec. Finds Cat. $.K. 196, plate 48, fig. 8) from +21 feet in 
Terrace C, South Kurgan, is included among them because of its evident after-use 
for pounding, but it is doubtful if it was intended originally for that purpose. The 








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Figs. 509-516.—Stone Implements from the South Kurgan. 


implement shown in figs. 525-527 (A.S.K. 119) owes its shape only partly to design, 
being a curiously weathered stone adapted by man (see plate 48, fig. 7). The 
same may be said of fig. 528 (A.S.K. 220, plate 48, fig. 2). 

Fig. 529 (A.S.K. 53) shows a cylinder broken at both ends, made of micaceous 
schist. 

Fig. 521 shows a broken pestle of the cylindrical type found on the North 
Kurgan. It is similar to that shown in fig. 496, except that it lacks signs of lateral 
after-use as a muller. 


LARGER STONE IMPLEMENTS OF THE KURGANS AT ANAU. 481 


By far the best worked of the larger stone implements taken from either kur- 
gan, if we except the mortar shown in fig. 532, is shown in fig. 530. The shat- 
tered end is roughly squared; the other has a circular cross-section and is carved 
with beautifully smoothed flutings, converging to a point at the center. The 
ridges between the flutings are sharp and their bottoms are even and round. If 
the ancient inhabitants of this kurgan had other use for it than ceremonial, it 
must have been on soft material, for the repeated, and seemingly intended, blows 
which have shattered one end have had no corresponding effect on the other. 

Fig. 531 shows a large mealing-stone found in the South Kurgan, but typical 
of those of both, after they had been worn down in the middle by continued friction 
with a muller such as is seen in fig. 496. 








' A A - 
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on) Ny v 
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y 
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v 
a 
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<-f A I.-> 





«--2/2 in.--> 
520 524 523 
Figs. 517-524.—Pestles and Mullers from the South Kurgan. 


Figs. 532 and 533 represent a highly developed form of stone mortar, which is 
all the more interesting from its close resemblance to that still in use. Fig. 532 is 
about 5 inches high. It is from the IV or Iron Culture at the top of the South 
Kurgan. 

The information we can get concerning the daily life of these people is but 
slightly augmented by examination of their larger stone implements. We find 
that by far their commonest household tool that has come down to us (not counting 
the spinning weight described in Dr. Schmidt’s report) is the mealing-stone and 


482 LARGER STONE IMPLEMENTS OF THE KURGANS AT ANAU. 


muller with which they ground their flour. But whether it was a grain, wild or 
cultivated, that they used, or whether they were acquainted with some tuberous 
root, there is nothing to show. What, then, brought in the mortar form in the 
younger kurgan, where it exists side by side with the flat, matate-like stones? 
Did they find the cup easier for pounding cereals, or did they, perhaps, with the 
new culture, learn the use of a new vegetable from which they extracted juice? 
Did the more elaborate pestles of the younger kurgan mean different uses, or a 
budding artistic sense? Nothing but more extended excavation and better oppor- 
tunities for studying the great climatic changes could ever tell us. 


526 









J, 


‘ | \| 
SN 












ang nee 
ee eee 





Figs. 525-528.—Stone Implements from the South Kurgan. 
SUMMARY OF WORK DONE IN TERRACE IJ], NORTH KURGAN. 


On March 28 I was given charge of terrace 1, which had then been in process 
of excavation three days and been sunk to a level of +26.5 feet above datum. 
The digging extended north from the end of terrace 1 and measured 20 feet on 
the sides and 9 feet and 7 feet respectively on the south and north ends (see fig. 31). 

At +26.5 feet we came to a layer of fire-hardened earth extending out from 
the edges of a circular hole which was filled to the mouth with ashes. This hole 


SUMMARY OF WORK DONE IN TERRACE II, NORTH KURGAN. 483 


proved to be a sort of oven in the burnt earth, 5 inches deep and 6.5 inches in 
diameter at the rim. The ashes it contained were fine and white. It occurred 
3 feet down the terrace from the south end and 4 feet from the east wall. 

From 6 inches below the level of this hearth and some feet to the northwest 
of it, I took the child’s skeleton No. 6 (see Report on Burials of North Kurgan). 
Below the body as it lay was a layer of ashes and burnt earth in which was em- 
bedded a part of the base and side of a huge thick jar containing a greenish-yellow 
slag of fused ashes, and what probably had been bone. 

March 30, I took from the floor of the terrace at the same level (+26 feet) 
skeieton No. 7 (see Report on Burials of North Kurgan), which lay contracted 
on its right side and directly over a large stone with a small cup-mortar in one 
end (see Report on Larger Stone Implements, North Kurgan, fig. 497), the lip of 
which stood at +25 feet. This, however, was not taken out until later. 

















529 530 
« A 

' ' 

: ' 
s i 
* § 

v 
x 
3s 
' 
— OC + 
«------------- — lGinths - —-----—------- > 





Figs. 529, 530.—Stone Implements from the South Kurgan. 


531.—Type of Mealing-stone in both Kurgans. 
532, 533.—Stone Mortars from the South Kurgan, Culture IV. 


On April 1 we came upon a pithos in situ 12 feet south of the north end of the 
terrace, at a level of +26 feet. It was of heavy, undecorated clay. It contained 
earth and some few streaks and layers of white ashes. At the same level in the 
northwest corner of the terrace appeared another of the same sort, but much more 
badly wrecked than the first. Six inches lower down and some feet away lay 
another pithos, which proved like the others to be full of earth and ashes. 

At +25 feet above datum, and directly below the first hearth and oven-like 
hole, occurred another of the same sort. The earth was baked red for a foot or so 
about the edge of the hole and the same fine white ashes were found inside. Three 


484 SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN NORTH KURGAN. 


inches below the level of this hearth and out in the middle of the terrace was a 
plain undecorated pot like the others found above. Near it lay a half-burnt 
clay brick measuring 9 inches by 5.5 inches by 2.5 inches. This lay in situ, but 
was found to be broken into many fragments. 

At this same level and directly below the site of skeleton No. 7, but lving 
to the west of the stone cup-mortar also found below it, were two pots in situ, 
showing remains of a decorative design done in black. 

On April 4, 5, and 6, I excavated the four skeletons numbered 11, 12, 13, 
and 14 (see Report on Burials of North Kurgan), all at the level of +22.5 feet. 
They all occurred over layers of ashes mixed with bits of charcoal, and they all 
had near them burial objects, such as white stone beads (N.K.114,144; plate 4o, 
fig. 2), carnelian beads (N.K. 114), lead tubes and copper corkscrew spirals (N.K. 
185; plate 36, fig. 1). With numbers 12 and 14 air-dried bricks were laid to form 
a partial sepulture. No. 12 was found beneath a layer of ashes as well as above 
one, though in all probability the top layer belonged to a later period. 

The last thing excavated by me in this terrace was a large pithos. It lay 
in the northwest corner of the digging and contained besides fine earth a mealing- 
stone of gently sloping surface (see Report on Larger Stone Implements, North 
Kurgan), on which lay a muller (see fig. 496) of cylindrical form, the battered end 
of which showed former use as a pestle. This was the only case in either kurgan 
where mealing-stone and muller were found together. 

Dr. Schmidt in his report has treated the occurrence of the objects excavated 
in this terrace so fully that there is little to add. As it is just here that the transi- 
tion period between the older and younger cultures of the kurgan occurs, his 
results and classifications of the finds in one or the other group is of the greatest 
importance. 


REPORT ON SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN ANAU. 
NORTH KURGAN. 


When it became my duty to expose the skeletons in the Anau kurgans as they 
were come upon by the workmen, there had already been several fragments of 
human remains brought to light. One skeleton, more or less complete, was taken 
up in the north digging and reburied, as its position and orientation showed it 
to be the more or less modern grave of a native Turkoman. During the first 
few days there were also taken from the first terrace fragments of children’s 
skulls belonging to at least five individuals. 

When it had become clear to Professor Pumpelly and to Dr. Schmidt that 
human remains were likely to occur in more than a fragmentary, and haphazard 
way, I was given the work of excavating them and noting their occurrence. 

In every case where it was practicable, a large circle was drawn around the 
remains as soon as they were discovered and the men carried on their work outside 
its limits. In this way the floor of a terrace would be carried down 3 or 4 feet, 
leaving the skeleton untouched on a pedestal. This method was found to be of 
great help when the actual clearing of the bones was begun. 


SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN NORTH KURGAN. 485 


The material of the kurgan was so closely packed as to make fine work 
extremely difficult, and nearly all the skeletons were so delicate that exposure 
to wind and sun destroyed them. I found that a soft brush and a fine knife- 
blade were often none too nice for the work. When air-dried bricks appeared, 
often the only way of detecting them was by the faint outlined contours in the 
cutting, for they were as easy to work in as the material of the hill itself. The 
layers of ashes and charcoal that so often occurred under the skeletons as well 
as in other places came as a pleasant relief to the workers. 

The human remains were uncovered from above and drawn and photographed 
while still embedded enough to be supported. When this was done the upper 
bones were removed and the position of the hidden portions carefully noted. 
Then the earth for some distance around was thoroughly searched for burial 
objects. In taking out the minute beads found with some of the skeletons, notably 
No. 9, it was found that even a very close sieve could not be trusted and that 
the fingers were more sensitive and sure. In this way many square feet of earth 
passed through my hands, and though the work was delayed it proved well worth 
while, for from that burial alone we took 1,066 drilled beads, each scarcely larger 
than a pin-head (see plate 4o, fig. 5). 

The three highest skeletons were excavated by Dr. Schmidt :* 7 at +36 feet 
in terrace IV; d at +34 feet in terrace v, and ¢ in terrace v, at +30 feet 2 inches 
above datum. 

Skeleton No. 1 (¢).—For the description of the latter, I quote from his notes: 


This child’s skeleton is 62 cm. long, with its head to the south lying on the right side, but disturbed 
and partly destroyed by the pick. The trunk is on its back, inclined to the right,the left arm on the left 
side with that hand by the pelvis. The right arm is destroyed. The pelvis bones are spread to the left 
and right. The right leg, bent at the knee, is on the left side. The right leg is ill preserved, with the 
upper part drawn up and to the right; the lower bones of it are lacking. 


Skeleton No. 5 (a4).—The next skeleton in order of altitude was one I have 
called ‘‘No. 5’’ (see fig. 534). It lay at an altitude of +30 feet in terrace 1. The 
bones were those of a young child, for the cranial sutures gaped wide and the 
epiphyses separated off the long bones. The body was placed on its right side, 
lying in a contracted position, with the head toward the southeast. The left arm 





* Das beruht auf Missverstandnissen. Ich finde in.meinem Tagebuch folgende Notizen: 
*“Sonnabend d.2. April. * * * 

“Terrasse IV. Es wird wieder das Skelett (7. e., y) eines Kindes in der Lage der liegenden Hocker auf 
der rechten Seite von Herrn Warner freigelegt und photographiert. Beigaben fehlen. 

“Terrasse V. * * * Neben dem Topf (z.¢., +34.5 feet) etwas unter dem Niveau, auf dem er 
steht, werden Skelette aufgedeckt und unter diesen die Spuren eines tieferen Topfes (7. e., 
+33 feet) * * * Herr Warner legt die Skelette frei; es ist ein unentwirrbarer Haufen von 
mehreren Kinderskeletten (7. e., 0), der von ihm beseitigt wird. * 

**Dienstag den 5. April. * * * 

““Terrasse V, ca. 20 cm. unter dem Niveau der Kalkschicht, siidwestlich davon, neben der aufgedeck- 
ten Mauer, die Reste eines zerst6rten Kinderskelettes (7.e., ¢). * * * Das Kinderskelett ist 
62cm.lang. Kopf nach Stiden auf der rechten Seite, aber verschoben und durch die Hacke z. T. 
zerstért. Rumpf auf dem Riicken mit einer Wendung nach rechts, linker Arm auf der linken 
Seite, linke Hand in Beckenhohe, rechter Arm zerstért; linkes Bein an der linken Seite und im 
Knie gebogen, rechtes Bein nur unvollstandig erhalten, rechter Oberschenkel nach rechts und 
nach oben gezogen, rechter Unterschenkel fehlt.”’ 


Also nur Skelett ¢ habe ich herausgenommen und zwar weil Herr Warner gerade in Terrasse II be- 


schafligt war. 
Dr. HUBERT SCHMIDT. 


BERLIN, d. 29. Marz, 1908. 


486 SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN NORTH KURGAN. 


was bent in such a position as to bring the hand opposite the face and on a level 
with it, while the right arm was extended down at an angle of 40° with the trunk. 

In front of this body and parallel with its main axis lay two air-dried bricks, 
7.5 inches long by 2.5 inches wide, set on edge. At a right angle with these, 1.5 
inches from the top of the skull, I came upon another brick of indeterminable 
length, but the same thickness. The three were laid in so deliberate a fashion 
as to suggest an attempt at sepulture. Between the heels and the end of the 
spine four lapis-lazuli beads (see N.K. 50, plate 4o, fig. 6) came to light, drilled 
from both flat surfaces so that the hole was roughly double-conical. Four inches 
back of the neck appeared a smooth, clay, plummet-shaped object, possibly also 
a burial gift. Skeleton, bricks, and gifts all lay on an even bed of ashes mixed 
with small pieces of charcoal, resting on a layer of hard-burnt earth. 

Skeleton No. to.—In terrace vil on the southerly slope of the kurgan, the 
workmen came upon traces of human remains at +29.5 feet. These proved to 
be the jumbled bones of a child, evidently hauled about and dislocated by an 
animal, for I found a burrowextending straight down through the middle of it all. 
Two feet below this level, in what seemed to have been the bottom of the burrow, 
the missing bones that belonged above were found, together with two crania of 
small rat-like rodents. ‘The loose earth that had filled the hole from the hillside 
above had allowed so much dampness to enter that all the bones were in an 
extremely fragile condition. 

Skeleton No. 15.—In the same terrace vil, and at the same level, + 29.5 feet, 
though nearer the outer edge of the hill, were found the cranium and a few vertebrze 
and long bones of a young child. The position in which the body had lain was 
indeterminable, and the bones fell to pieces as soon as they had dried. 

Skeleton No. 9.—On April 7, in terrace v, we came upon a child burial at a 
height of 29 feet. No traces of the cranium could be found, though four teeth 
lay in an orderly row as if there had been no disturbance. The main axis of the 
body was approximately southwest to northeast. In the softer earth about the 
pelvis and lower limb-bones, I took out 1,066 minute white beads, apparently of 
stone (N.K.222, plate 40, fig. 5). They were cylindrical, about ;,-inch in diameter 
and length, and so delicately bored that a very fine needle was required to thread 
them. Their presence on the leg-bones and pelvis, and their absence on the upper 
parts of the body suggest that they might have been sewn to a kirtle or other 
garment, and not used in strings, as were the larger beads we found later. 

Skeleton No. 2 (3).—The next burial in order of altitude appeared in terrace I 
at +28 feet. It was the skeleton of a young child lying on its right side in a con- 
tracted position. From the top of the cranium to the end of the spine measured 
but 13 inches and the knees were so drawn up that the greatest width of the body 
in position was 8 inches. ‘The main trend of the body was southwest and north- 
east. The right arm bones lay parallel with and behind the vertebre, the left 
arm bent to bring the hand palm down in front of the face. (See fig. 535.) 

When the bones were removed they were found to have been laid on a hori- 
zontal layer of wood-ashes and charcoal varying from 2 to 3 inches in depth and 


SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN NORTH KURGAN. 487 


extending a foot or so beyond the body on all sides. The weight of the earth 
above had broken in the skull along the sutures and also warped it out of shape, 
so that no measurements could be made, but as it lay in position the effect of its 
shape seemed markedly brachycephalic. 

Skeleton No. 3.—In this same terrace I, we came upon two other skeletons 
at the same level (+ 28 feet). One, very small, was left unexcavated in the east 
wall of the terrace, but the other, also in the east wall, I laid bare. The main axis 
of the body was southwest and northeast as far as could be determined by the few 
bones preserved. The body had evidently lain on its back, with the skull propped 
up in such a way that it now was set squarely on its base and lower jaw fitted 
over the first two vertebre so as almost to suggest a dislocation of the neck. The 
left leg was extended straight down the main axis northeast from the skull, but 
the right knee was slightly bent and thrown over to the right above it. Only 
six of the ribs remained, all on the left side, and the top of the cranium had broken 
down, leaving only the side-walls and lower portions in place. (See fig. 536.) 


Fig. 534.—No. 5, Terrace I. Fig. 535.—No. 2, Terrace I. Fig. 536.—No. 3, Terrace I. 


Skeleton No. 4.—The next burial was found at a height of + 27 feet in the third 
terrace and more nearly approached adult size than any laid bare up to this 
time. The cranial sutures were not, however, closed and the ossification of the 
epiphyses was not complete in the limb-bones. 

The body lay contracted on its right side with the main axis southeast and 
northwest. Both arms were drawn up as if to bring the hands (which were lacking) 
in front of the face, the left above the right. From the top of the badly broken 
cranium to the end of the spine measured 23 inches and from the back of the spine 
across to the ends of the leg bones was but 13 inches. (See fig. 537.) 

Skeleton No. 6.—At a height of + 26 feet in the second terrace the workmen 
broke with their picks into the skull of a child’s body that on examination gave 


488 SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN NORTH KURGAN. 


fewer evidences of deliberate burial than any others excavated up to that time. 
In general the trend of the body was southwest and northeast. The broken skull 
lay on its face, with a slight lean to the right, the knees were so bent that the lower 
leg bones stuck up to a height that would have brought the feet, had they been 
present, above the level of the top of the skull. It seems as if the body must 
have fallen in such soft material that it was partially buried at once and a support 
thus given to the feet and lower legs. Just beneath the skull was a large fragment 
of the bottom and side of a great earthen jar. Filling the cavity of this inverted 
fragment was a greenish-white slag partly fused with ashes; and under both pot- 
sherd and skeleton was a layer of rough charcoal and wood ashes. (See fig. 538.) 





Fig. 537.—No. 4, Terrace III. Fig. 538.—No. 6, Terrace II. Fig. 539.—No. 7, Terrace II. 


Skeleton No. 7.—In terrace 1 also, and on a level with the skeleton just 
described, I uncovered the first adult remains we had seen. The skeleton lay 
contracted on the right side, with the knees drawn up to a right angle with the 
main axis, which was southeast and northwest. The left arm lay extended down 
along the body, but the right was bent enough to bring the hand opposite the 
pelvis. (See fig. 539.) 

Although the bones were too fragile to admit removal without elaborate 
gluing, and this was not thought advisable, the cranium showed. the sutures well 
closed, and the teeth were worn flat and dull. The extreme length of the skeleton 
in position was 53 inches and the extreme width 15.5 inches. 

Skeleton No. 8.—The next burial we came upon was in terrace VIII at + 25.5 
feet above the established datum. The bones were those of a young child and, 
though much lacking, it was possible to determine the main axis of the body 
as southwest and northeast. It was lying contracted on the right side with 





SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN NORTH KURGAN. 489 


the left upper arm (all that remained of that member) stretched back of the 
body at an angle of about 40° with it. The right upper arm bones were absent, 
but the lower arm was traceable, extending along the main axis. The little that 
remained of the cranium showed the sutures still open and the walls of almost 
paper-like thinness. (See fig. 540.) 

Skeleton No. 11.—From the last skeleton which occurred on the south slope 
of the kurgan I was summoned by the workmen, who had come upon remains 
again in terrace II at +22.5 feet. This burial, which I have numbered 11, proved 
to be that of a child lying contracted on the right side, with the main axis running 
southwest and northeast. I found no traces of the right leg or right arm; but 





uJ 
i, 
1 
(Semen —— 
sins 4) | i — 
~~ a a 
Fig. 540.—No. 8, Terrace VIII. Fig. 541.—No. 11, Terrace II. Fig. 542.—No. 14, Terrace II. 


the left knee was drawn up at a right angle, and the left upper arm ran parallel 
with the vertebre, the elbow being bent so that the hand lay out at the level 
of the pelvis. (See fig. 541.) From near the collar-bone I took out 58 small 
white stone beads (N.K. 114), many of them double-conical. One larger white 
stone bead of a cylindrical shape (N.K. 114, plate 4o, fig. 2) and 11 flat beads of 
red carnelian (N.K. 114, plate 40, fig. 2). 

To reach this skeleton it was necessary to remove a hearth-like layer of hard- 
burnt earth topped by a layer of ashes 1 to 3 inches thick; and after the bones 
had been lifted I came upon a similar hearth beneath, extending over about 
4 feet square. 

Skeleton No. 12.—In the same terrace (11) and at the same height, 22.5 feet, 
but about 5 feet north of No. 11, we uncovered a child’s bones lying in the position 
now so familiar—contracted on the right side, with the main axis southeast and 


490 SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN NORTH KURGAN. 


northwest. The right knee lay under the left, but doubled to a slightly sharper 
angle. The left arm was bent so as to bring the hand in front of the face, while 
the right lay along parallel with the vertebre, the fingers underneath the pelvis. 
From between the lower jaw and the collar-bone, I took 67 small white beads 
(N.K. 144, plate 4o, fig. 8), like those found with skeleton No. 11. Along the 
back and beyond the head, at a right angle to the main axis, were traces of air- 
dried bricks as in skeleton No. 5, and, as in that case, the whole lay upon a 
layer of charcoal and ashes. 

Skeleton No. 13.—Again, at the same altitude in terrace 1 I came upon traces 
of a child’s skeleton in the midst of the caved earth of an animal’s burrow. The 
cranium and many other parts of the skeleton were entirely lacking. Among 
the jumbled bones, however, lay 2 small white beads of stone and 3 spirally wound 
cylinders of lead, possibly beads (N.K. 143, plate 40, fig. 3). Beneath the body 
was a layer of fine white ashes, below which the earth was burnt hard and red. 





Fig. 543.—No. 16, East Gallery. Fig. 544.—No. 17, East Gallery. Fig. 545.—No. 18, North Digging I. 


Skeleton No. r4.—The next remains in terrace 1 lay also at + 22.5 feet. They 
were those of a child and lay contracted on the right side with the left knee drawn 
up slightly higher than the right. The left upper arm lay parallel with the main 
axis (southeast and northwest) with elbow bent so as to bring that hand on a level 
with the pelvis. The right arm lay extended under the body and parallel to it. 
As in nearly every other case, the cranium was crushed by the weight of the earth. 
(See fig. 542.) 

In connection with this burial were taken out three bits of spirally wound 
tubes of copper and two plain lead tubes and one flint edge. Air-dried bricks 
were traceable along the main axis before and behind the body, and the whole 
was on a layer of ashes and charcoal with fire-reddened earth beneath. 

Skeleton No. 16.—Skeleton 16 next came to light, far below any human remains 
we had yet found. It was in the east gallery off from General Komorof’s trench, 
at a level of 8 feet below datum on the plain. It was that of a young child and 


SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN NORTH KURGAN. 491 


lay on its face, with the top of the cranium crushed in. The arm bones were 
jumbled together in an indistinguishable mass. The left leg was straight from 
the trunk, but the right knee was pulled up at an angle. Five vertebre were 
found inside the skull. With the body I found two clay spin-whorls and two flint 
edges. Below was a layer of ashes and bits of charred wood over fire-hardened 
earth. (See fig. 543.) 

Skeleton No. 17.—The next burial was at the same level (—8 feet) and, like 
the other, in the east gallery. As before, the bones were those of a child, but in 
this case when they were laid bare they were found to be in the familiar contracted 
position. The main axis was southwest and northeast. The body had lain on 
its left side with the right leg drawn up to a right angle with the main axis and 
the left leg seemingly disturbed. The arms were bent to bring the two hands, one | 
over the other, in front of the face, much as in the predynastic Egyptian burials. 
(See fig. 544.) 

From the earth between the knees and the lower jaw I took 6 flat bean-shaped 
turquoise beads and two pierced snail shells (plate 40, fig. 7). When the bones 
were removed a layer of ashes and charcoal over fire-hardened earth came to light. 

Skeleton No. 18.—The lowest of all the human remains which we found in the 
North Kurgan occurred in the north digging No. 1 at a depth of —11 feet. As 
usual the bones were immature and the position was contracted, with the main 
axis southwest and northeast. The body lay on its left side, with the hands 
in front of the face, and beneath it I found ashes and charcoal mixed with occasional 
bits of burnt bone. (See fig. 545.) . 

The results to be superficially gained from the human burials in the North 
Kurgan may be thus briefly summed up: 

Out of 18 different remains laid bare, 10 were in the contracted position, 
4 indeterminable, and 4 definitely not contracted. Of these all but 3 headed to 
the southwest, with the trunk running northeast. These 3 varied to the southeast. 
Ten were found on hearths or layers of ashes topping burnt earth; 8 (6 of the 
lower culture and 2 above) were found with small objects in obvious connection 
with the burials, and 3 had not only hearths beneath them, but traces of bricks 
carefully placed in reference to the bodies. 

These facts, taken in connection with the floors and walls found by Dr. Schmidt 
(see Dr. Schmidt’s report), seem to prove that the children (for we came upon 
but two adults) were buried in or near the houses and often on hearths that were 
especially prepared for their reception, or, what seems more likely, the domestic 
hearths within or just outside the dwellings. 


SOUTH KURGAN. 


The burials which occurred in the South Kurgan were excavated in the same 
way we had attacked those in the north, that is, by carrying on the work around 
them till they were left isolated on pedestals at a convenient height, and then 
personally exposing them. Nine out of the 10 came to light in terrace B on the 
southern slope of the hill, and the altitudes at which they were found only included 
a range of 6.5 feet (+27 feet to + 20.5 feet). 


492 SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN SOUTH KURGAN. 


Skeleton No. 19 (a).—The first one of the skeletons found in terrace B was 
at +27 feet above datum. It proved to be the remains of a child lying contracted, 
with the main axis running northeast and southwest. Lying on the right side, 
the hands were spread in front of the face and the knees drawn up to an angle 
of 90° with the trunk. From among the bones of the left wrist was taken one 
small, cylindrical, yellowish-white stone bead (S.K. 244). (See fig. 546.) 

Skeleton No. 21 (f).—Skeleton No. 21, a few feet south and west of No. 19, 
was again that of a child lying contracted on the right side. It was also at an 
altitude of +27 feet. The left hand was beneath the chin, with that elbow close 
in to the trunk. The right arm was slightly deranged. The position of the leg 
bones was traceable as contracted, but they were for the most part mere channels 
in the hard-packed earth. Below the body was a thin horizontal layer of ashes 
and charcoal. 


Add 
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> 


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Fig. 546.—No. 19, Terrace B. Fig. 547.—No. 23, Terrace B. Fig. 548.—No. 28, Terrace C. 


moe H th © 
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Skeleton No. 22 (7).—Nearly due east from the last skeleton and about 8 feet 
from it we came upon the next burial at a level of +25 feet. The body was 
that of a child lying contracted on the left side, with the main axis of the trunk 
northeast and southwest. The position of many of the bones could be traced 
by their decayed remains, but little else could be learned. There remained no 
vestige of the left leg and foot or of the right lower arm and hand. 

Skeleton No. 23 (£).—At a level of + 25 feet, northwest from the site of skeleton 
No. 21, we found the contracted remains of a child (the fourth in this terrace). 
They lay on the left side, with the right knee drawn slightly closer to the trunk 


SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN SOUTH KURGAN. 493 


than the left, which was beneath it. For the only time in the burials of either 
kurgan the main axis was west and east. The left hand lay palm down in front 
of the breast just under a small clay bowl (see plate 10, fig. 2), while the fingers 
of the right hand lay around the neck of a little jar, the lip of which was tipped 
to within 0.5 inch of the teeth of the lower jaw. (See fig. 547.) 

Skeleton No. 24 (#).—North of these first burials and more in the body of the 
hill the workmen came to the ill-preserved remains of a child at +25 feet, lying 
contracted on the left side. The bones were little better than traces in the earth, 
but it was possible to determine that the main trend of the body was northwest 
by southeast, and that the right knee was drawn up so close to the ribs that the 
heel nearly touched the tip of the spine. 

Skeleton No. 25 (¢).—Slightly north and 4 feet to the east of skeleton No. 24, 
in the north wall of the terrace, there occurred evidences of the burial of a child 
in a contracted position, on the right side. More details I could not gather about 
the mode of burial, except that the main axis ran southeast to northwest. Many 
of the bones had utterly disappeared, and the whole was so decomposed as to be 
the mere ground plan of what had once been a skeleton. Below the body was 
found a layer of ashes and charcoal, slightly depressed in the middle and ranging 
from 1 to 3 inches in depth. The level of this burial was the same as the one 
before it, +25 feet. 

Skeleton No. 20 (0).—From directly over a wall, which Dr. Schmidt was later 
able to trace for some feet north and south, I took the bones of a child which had 
been buried contracted on its right side. Its level was 23 feet 7 inches. Though 
the long bones of the right leg were wanting, the foot was in such a position as 
to clearly indicate that that leg, like the left, had been drawn up at an angle 
with the trunk. The trend of the vertebra lay southwest and northeast. 

Skeleton No. 26(y4).—Four feet northeast of skeleton No. 19, at a level of + 23 
feet, were human bones more nearly of an adult size than any that had yet come 
to light in the South Kurgan. They seemed of about the proportion of an Anglo- 
Saxon boy of 15 or thereabouts. The cranial sutures were almost ossified and 
the ephiphyses of the longer bones partly joined. 

The body lay on its right side in a contracted position with the hands in front 
of the face. The main axis ran northeast to southwest. All the lower skeletal 
bones were in better condition than the cranium, which for some reason had quite 
disintegrated, all but certain portions of the front of the lower jaw. 

Skeleton No. 27 (¢).—The last remains we found in this terrace were under the 
door-stone and threshold in the west wall described by Dr. Schmidt (see report 
of Dr. Schmidt). They consisted merely in an adult skull lying on its right side 
and beyond it the left arm with the elbow bent to bring the fingers under the chin. 
At a distance of 14 inches out from the body lay the fingers of the right hand, 
but not even a trace of other bones was found. This was all the more remarkable 
in consideration of the fact that those bones which were discovered were in a 
comparatively good state of preservation. The level of these remains was + 23 
feet. Beneath the body was a horizontal layer of ashes and charcoal, below which 
in turn were found the remains of an apparently tumbled wall. 





494 SKELETONS EXCAVATED IN SOUTH KURGAN. 


Skeleton No. 28.—In terrace C, at a level of 20.5 feet, we found the lowest 
burial of any. The bones were those of an adult, as the closed cranial sutures, 
worn teeth, and ossified epiphyses to the long bones clearly showed. (See fig. 548.) 

The skull was caved in and lying at one end of a neat bundle composed of 
the other parts of the skeleton. All the long bones had been gathered together 
as one would bundle sticks. That they had been previously dislocated was proved 
in that the lower ends in the case of the right leg and the right arm were found near- 
est the skull. But that the flesh had not been removed seems shown by the fact 
that the patella were both in their correct relative positions. It was also clear 
that the dislocation had been done with some nicety or else that the limbs had 
been twisted apart, for the ends of the bones showed no scars or evidences of 
chopping as must surely have been the case had the body been merely hacked 
into ‘‘lengths’’ at the articulations. The skull had been placed on its base at 
the eastern end of the bundle. 


Looking over these burials brought to light in the South Kurgan at Anau, 
no such absolute results can be reached as from those of the northern one. Of 
the 10, only 3 are found in connection with the layers of ashes and burnt earth 
comparatively common in the other. Only two skeletons are accompanied by 
burial gifts, and no rule at all can be deduced from the orientation of the bodies, 
as we found them heading to nearly every point of the compass. However, on 
one point of prime importance the burials seem fairly constant, for we only found 
one case where the body was definitely arranged in a non-contracted position, 
and that, it is worth noting, was one of the two adults found in the kurgan. One 
burial was indeterminable in position, thus leaving 8 out of the 10 contracted. 

If, now, there is any basis of comparison between the civilizations of the two 
kurgans to justify my treating them together, the burials removed from both 
give us, in tabular form, the following results: 

















Contracted on right: sid@o enn eee er eee 13 Found with buriall gifts... >... . 1. 10 
Contracted: onvleft side wesc eet elas 5 Found without burial gifts.................. 18 
Indeterminable position’. -—.— sae see eee ae 5 
Not: contracted. position. .7%.cccumera eis ne 5 Total « + «jiscaai= Sida ee eae ee 28 
Total igi 30 235 0suene ct eve see 28 Adult remains: .92.30<5<s «see wales wae ee 4 
Child remains. 6.0.14 shikai ae 24 
Found on-hearths:3, 4.2. sh aioe eee 13 
Found! without hearthst. eet eee 15 ‘Lotal.s..¢0 8438 § ae ee eee 28 
Total 54.5 2:4 awiviesnsa sccpetesteee eit eae ae 28 


One can deduce from these figures that the people with whose culture we 
have to do buried their infants and young children in or near the dwellings, often 
over hearths of burnt earth and ashes; that in general the body was placed upon 
its side with the knees drawn up in a contracted position, and that burial gifts 
were often placed with the bodies, such as beads of stone or copper, flint knives, 
and clay spin-whorls. The mere presence of these objects in connection with the 
burials does not prove belief in a future life, for parental affection and sentiment 
might go far toward explaining them. But since in all history and in all pre- 
historical research there are no evidences of a people existing without a religion 
or cult, we can fairly assume that the burial gifts found in the Anau kurgans 
throw some light on the beliefs of the inhabitants. 


INDEX. 





[Norr.—The asterisk (*) indicates that the reference is to an illustration. ] 


PAGE. 
PAA CLEM recyclers 368, 403, 404, 409, 410, 414, 415, 417 
ANTES ade iS SRA OTC ee Orca 414 
PAID DE Ville seri sera Aci sicegstn eo. cs ees Ge Wises oes 376 
ANSE 45t Gee eNO C ee Te ee eee 353 
PUGAGHION ss AllG> Viste. rcicts 2.Gaelees sn et cae 460 
AGES Se aati pS Gene CORSE eae Her IIR, IN Siar 414, 415 
Adobe roof (with or without wood), relation 
of, to growth of Kurgans....... 299, ff. 
PAUL OSEA Peet LUtiaS OL a sept oe ece ec ociece © eke 0) see eFsie.s Str 
ERMC ca eres re Warinh xe me atte 
SNE E E RSS OV ALC Ya oe spd ive wlSe or ntge. cars ds 282 
BNL Ser PeRe ss cos ie hoi sis. nails: sj 5.5, Sa re’eue siege nian’ 456 
PSHM Set teciere sterrsieye. © hes wa ae wes ee 283 
lil GCS (a (BOS Be aS Sona eae Ge Cee e 287 
PAIateMOUMCATTIS Ae. cs series 264, 267, 275, 277, 289 
Pte Guth Cath Ce Cava mieieeies lanier. chai 264 
eLOsiouscyCles iN. e eale ene 287 
POR VERE trie S Aele sc ieee thh aikecaien « 259, ff., 260* 
IA VSIG ELA DI Yel aoe steeper ete eo ahem ore = 259-264 


route through, from Bactra to Kashgar 
307-310, 309% 
3 


LOLTACCSHINGE ices tieyaparare: 6 sys Se eae Ee 263* 
LN LOVED TS Fy Coes OVERS SRE OSI On Ane 2EE 252 
PAT GTITATITI Ts MME A PNG Perec rel eiges te oot wie © wlele ace.’ 453 
PASEO ARC OCL i iterates o, ora. e fbi eashega.< Afi ten oiaue's 332 
Alluvial activity as a barrier to the formation 
GlCUTeS Wa eh sr macro. gatoves 244 
Alluvial deposition, man’s control of, at Anau. 324, ff. 
Alltryialsdeposition at) Merv..22. 00: ......5. B32) /)- 
PREVA WATE LT AGCES wer, 0 epee cain in Sitges ahs 2 tis 263 
Alluvial zone in an ideal desert basin... ...247—248 
Tits hemhatitnn Basin vemene: peat nota hi. 283-286 
mEthewmergatia, Basin. .0 9. Anite cies en 290 
in the Aralo-Caspian Basin....... 294-295, 298 
Alluviation of the Kizil Su gorge in Karategin. 274 
Gfethe: Zetalsnan GOLrge. smn eicis acle «st 279-279 


Alluviation, glacial, see Glacial. 
Alluvium, wind-blown derivatives of... . 246, 283, ff. 
“natural sediments” and their relation 


to the archeology of Anau..... 3290, ff. 

Of; Mery A pvehe tts ote cateds eres soe. B35.16 

RATA LMEE Ree 5 Fase e eke tance Senet real onthe bys 387, 388 
em rettad Vit (LYRIS) rn gisiel fe hs x Oe See A 292, 295 


Anau, animal remains from excavations at. . 341-442 
estimation of amount of erosion on North 


Karrvan ate ac siverki arse caters 305 
human skulls from excavations at..... 445-446 
PUVSIOSTAD UY OL achtc se ea. ain cisiplsie «ae 320-330 


peculiarities of, as an oasis type I (b).. . 320, ff. 
relative percentage of different animals 

bal JoWatey uu Lfvete ll Mba A oe aikc Meee 341-342 
some human remains from excavations at449—-468 
stone implements from the excavations 


2H Ga RA tere 9 5b OES Gener Are 477-484 

Skeletons excavated atau. ccacrs 6 are - 484-494 
wheat and barley from North Kurgan at 471-473 
Anau-li, irrigation deposits left by......... 326, ff. 
JMrer ue Sbsh te etenetorts oan atinascn bob aoe 325 
SLOSLOMULCV.CIES) Ol ty eA rites texcteycreea viet 322 
PANGHILNELUTML ane trees Wise ets eek oy stee 424 
FATICIATTIANCSE Petes orrerthe ht dee ciutaeke oa eG 456 
RST a ES OT eye mee Pe gee 308 











PAGE. 
ZATIIATI OA CoRR RAE or, ne AS co Rens cys 459 
PECL MEY EOE coca Fn Sc ad ai ER coe 342 
PRIS UB OV PORE Re cencg 4c iss, 6 FAS AS ee 0 ke aM at 382 
LALA oiry Calf pea OS, ee, a ale ar 407 
PLN eR Mc Fm artic D sine Cele s Reak 431 
Pbte Ol EV Dipores brelc hid the kp cia d «2s tie 359, 364, 365 
NT ACLS AMEE ce Soto ise Wise" wit Ge 362 
Aralo-Caspian Basin, physiography of..... 291-298 
Arctic overflow of the Aralo-Caspian....... 292 
DN oT dee oh cae Os, ee tae en a 427, 430 
Aridity of desert basins reintensified at the 
beginning of each erosion cycle 248 


Aridity of the Northern Pamir........... 251-253 
of the Aralo-Caspian basin during the 
beginning of the second erosion 

CYCIOR Rl tate cits 1 292-293, 208 
of the Aralo-Caspian basin at present, the 
beginning of the fourth erosion 


CY ClOMee ew ieni nd dors ee i=. 205; 298 
Hed COS hy Fase 5.n, oh eee ne ne OEE Oe ee ee 253 
See Deflation of Pamir, 
Aryan dialect in the Zerafshan Valley..... 265, 312 
PASTE Nair (all oe ween eters re ac leve acts « 361 
Asia, the continent from a dynamic point of 
NGA he, Sale, co RIS SIO ONCE RENEE 243 
LASEMUS 1 CIVECARUS Heater enc le aie ies coe © «as 403 
PASkha badane nie weiner re een epee. CAS cy'sr3 302 
BEROSIAC WEA Bite Cas? ns eae ss «7s 249 
ASS ope Ome Oe ren 403, 407, 408, 409, 413, 414, 415 
SS VUIAN emit paetop ihe edt ens Seeebisisis snd 306.» 351, 361 
ALIStPAlIANS ans. as ey A See 459, 461 
Auvernier...... 353, 397, 403, 404, 409, 410, 417, 426 
Babyloniaere saeco see o- 351, 360, 361, 440 


Bactria, Alai Valley route from, to China. .307—310 


Baran AL ery ete cee Mec se eat eneevey merc erence a2 a 333 
Baplvarshy. peers tate isns tote Gani eteia altel Sisters 52 453, 456 
SEN ab ety ai cr GEREN elect POO oe ae a 302 
Bal Kuwi, physiographic shaft at......... 327-328 
Bal kari: Gitte een wale ence a. - 5 pi 296-297 
Balyakandosewmrever aeease ccs aa sa cce ss B07, 
Barley and wheat, casts of, in potsherds 
TLOMMAT AU) lew wa fo eo 471-473 
HBT 8 0b wh ye DAL OCLC: Oe CATEGORIE AR nn eae 345 
Birch tyellow semen cette oo + Seaiacns.s 273 
Blanrvilles (Gems ie aresdanc Sass ss x = 404 
BlaAStitseperper sewers cre etre rece aiac soe ois y's) Ges 370 
Bohemiaameetrervr a tise a vletors tei suse fanuscie soe 345 
BOKNaTA atte Miter teasers aes fecha dee sisignere 265, 276 
at the mercy of Samarkand........... 319 
TOULE LOM mtOLEISSAT anemia eae reyes ee 310 
BO Speeeree ites Aner eas et as ore a, rae 5 2s 341-342 
namadicus Falconer & Cautley..... 359, ff» 435 
promigenius Bojanus................. 359, ff. 
WMUDGLOCEYOS MUeTStcns ci. <r a) 359, 305, 368 
EET AT Ro Bick copy Aka a ORCA C1 OCR ROR CRORE 359, 362 
PUNCOU A UNU Sete aE MEC RN oes Sistas) oc gee. ae 363 
faurusomacroceros DUersts 3.5... < 363, ff. 
AOR LES Giese OS i RS BD OO ON 363 
brachyceros Riitimeyer...........- 364, ff., 440 
Oy NY LOU Og, 5 rScieeen Goras 6 Siglo co Cie 364 
PAUSSRU IO CHEV COL OS tristan isonet sr“ 440, 441 


I 


II INDEX. 


PAGE. 
Boucher de-Perthesi.. 2 cnn sinter rns 403 
Boulogne. (282 tune cut aon tice ae ee eee 414 
Bovitia, of Anau andclleaeersr ete cere 359-369 


tables of comparisons...........359, 362, 366 


comparative heights......... 369 

Briesen..5.cnays teeny aesds cess ene ean meres 348, 426 
Broa a.gsis syn oan eee ee he sneer Rilo 401, 451 
Bruniqiue] Poca seis eee eee eee 404 
Bubalis.atnée Kerri. see ee eee B50n ui 
DONTE SSO eee 359 
paleindicus Falconer... ..........+--: 361 
OCcepiialis Valconeta ae teen ieee 363 
Budettzi:} 20. ar ee oe eer ets 351 
Pepuboeh bl Corgis Mey San sero mG Ciuice om opomene 451, 454 
Bural-bas-tatrspeneplaia.. 2.7 te ene 5) 
described by Davis.t.7.. ese 287, ff. 
Bushéd,..c hace eee ete ciate aren aetna, 416 
Cobar 35.3. seine ote eke ere eee ee ete 430, 431 
Camel, Sew kas niealor sche oa ee ee eae ee 378 
Of Amar LGictctsus were o> Cree 383-384 
Camelusicvon Gaia cae Cee eee ae ee 342-383 
CIUENISES oe arom rat per tena ra ae 384 
DACELANUS.. eionir teases oi ce. o, teste tee 384 
Rnobloche. s aerstecn eo ete coe ieee tee tel 384 
Canidae: 5 AR ae cae ee ee aces 345, 354 
Vulpes montana Pearson.............. 345 
CONT Se Soh ar eae a aero Ne ree 341, 342, 345-354 


familiaris matris optime Jeitteles. . 348, ff. 


430, 435, 438, 439, 441 

hodo phylaxis: sea eee ee 346 
inostranzewt...... 247" 348, 1.353. ao 

lupus Tignes on eee ee 346-347 
MOLOSSUS: Beas lets she te ee le 350 

pallipes Sykes........... 346,347,352, fe 
PALUSULUSS ieee erica oe sted ee 350 
poutratint . . 347, 348, 349, 350, 353, ff, 435 

Cuon alpinus Pallas. 220; 3)... te-ee 347 
Camhing-town F20% te ieee ee ee 374 
COPIA) Sore eee cate ae eee ee ee 342 
hircus riitumeyert Duerst......... 378, 380-381 
CPE PRE eh iris CE Cs Se oe ye 380 
CYELENSUS <n eens. seh A ee ee ee 381 
Cardamone= ste Le eee 395, 418, 420, 421 
422, 423, 424, 427, 430 

Carice system of underground water supply.. 302 
Caspian ‘Sain 7p. aneiacden ae aes ee 245, 292 
Caucasus iyacise evan ore eee eiel Pees eaters 438, 439 
Cavern Springs de ru ae oie eer 324 
Caverné 22. 05 haoue ess rate ea eee 392 
Cavicormia of Anan land Tia eee 359-382 
Cedars. 20.h6 3 soe ia elena eter ete 273 
Cervus maral Ogibyin..aeo eee eee 382 
Char tu fs Tae ha'dl ee Meriepo: rela ae eee 297 
Cherry wild son «tga eee eee 273 


China, Alai Valley route from Bactra to. ..307—310 
Chinese records of desiccation and dune ex- 


pansion in “Larinmn. Si.ea cee 286 
Chinese Turkestan, preservation of ruinsin.. 306 
Chosroes" TL ipa. ec crete ea ee ee 362 
Christians, early Nestorians of the Zerafshan 314 
Chust. cic. cee cae cea hain eee een aie 289 
Cindré:c is. ca ae ea eee 392, 402, 419, 429 
Clereg Meh d ste eRe eee eee 352 
Climate, diurnal extremes on the Pamir.... 253 
relation between climate and landlocked 
SCASiin shan pee eee 245 
in an ideal desert basin.............. 247-248 
See Aridity. 
Climatic cycles, ideal...... ie Met Bs ac 247-248 


in the Aralo-Caspian Sea expansions. . 292-294 











PAGE. 
Climatic cycies—Continued, 
recorded by the interlapping of deposi- 
tioh zones... el... eee nee 247 
Climatic change recorded— 


by recent changes in the glaciersof Pamir 258 
by the Zerafshan glacier and its tribu- 

taries ©.) 0 79 ey ee eee 279-280 
in a recent oscillation of the alluvial zone 

in Tarim... eee 283-284 
in the late expansion of flying sands in 

Tarim. \ cues ete eee 286 
in recent oscillations of the deposition 

zones of Aralo-Caspia....... 294-295 
in the present oscillation of the deposi- 

tion zones in Fergana........ 290 


in a recent decrease of surface drainage 
; in the Kopet Daghs 29." .428" 322-324 
in the periodic invasion and burial of 

dunes on the margin of the 


‘Anat deltas... 7252) 2 ene 327-328 
in the unconformities of the growth of 
Anau deltatcns....ca0 ree 329-330 
in the superposition of deposition zones 
at Merv 20y.0c154. 2) soe 336 
Conglomerate, uptilted piedmonts of, in Fer- 
Pama.) Siri eee 289, ff. 
in Western Tarim basin... 4.4.7. .0)se 282, ff. 
Conner, Fo. cca) J +.2. ge ee 440 
Convres. QUA aigne Bead alent en ce 419, 429 
Culture deposits (kurgans) : 
accumulation’ Of {icice 2. vee eee 299-300 
distribution OF... ...o ce. cae eee 301 
relation between erosion and burial of. . 303-305 
preservation) of 27 ca. seu oie ee 305, 307 
grading into irrigation deposits........ 329 
how they are recognized.............. 328 
Culture, uninterrupted growth made possible 
in high valley oases.......... aes 
Garb ced +h, Me IE. SA oe oe 392, 419, 429 
Quvier o..0. 2 6 anal sr ee ee 404 
Damburachi.!.te% ohio Rie een 268 
Dara-ut Kurgan... ..¢. 0.55 06 cee ee eee 309* 
Dargum canal... cu ose es sa eee 281, 283* 
David, ABBE ...00i.8ac ec ete che sie ee ee 363 
Davis; Wie Mo ate anna 254, 277, 285, 287, 292, 293 
Débris of human occupation discussed geo- 
logicallyscky seHer re 299-301, 303-307 
Deer nnats 2 ix 25 ee cue oe ee ee 382 
Deflated silts and residual dunes........... 285* 
Deflation and secular disintegration of the 
Pamireneetatt aoe. 253 
surface boulders of moraines planedoffby 257 
of silt¢plains in’ Tarim! liye eee 283, 
ofthe Pamitiec: 0. Aone ee ee 252%, 253* 


Deformations, see Uptilted piedmonts; Warpings. 
Deformations of the Hissar Valley evidenced 
by a fault-scarp and capturing 


of the Kazi Siren eee 270% 
Delta oases .ci'c0n8 See keke Cae eee 301, ff 
Of. Amat 2.0 %cls dilcekaieg ) Sa ie nel tee 320, ff 
Of Mervin cians we oe Ak taceiate weet che ieee 330-333 
Deposition zones, origin and arrangement of 
the) fivew che. « soa taeda 244-246 
interlapping of, caused by climatic os- 
cillation) :34 Agate rie eee ee 247 
in an-ideal.desert basin®..cass- ce 247-250 
recent oscillations of the alluvial in 
Tarim > eo pe ane eee 284-286 
recent oscillations of the alluvial in 
Fergana 35.202 220. ee, See 290 





INDEX. III 


PAGE. 
Deposition zones—Continued. 
the lacustrian in Aralo-Caspia........ 292-294 
recent developments in the alluvial and 


flying sands of Aralo-Caspia. . 294, 295 
i qi geeb aha dela. indie aot iminh Ot one Ais 303-307 
the building of a tilting delta on....... aon 
Hides the; cOmroloL Mai wate icss. .- 324-326 


interbedding of the alluvial and flying 
SAUCS iA teATIA Ue ete a aera 
the Murg-ab delta and man’s control of 
alluviation..... 330, 331, » 332, 33301 


Deposits from ice, water, and wind. . 244-247 
See Deposition zones, 
Oiiiary (Cultire;Gebiis)ice sure ee cee « 299, ff. 
WNgALOn Mepesits ne 4s eee se 324-327 
of man, water, and wind at Anau..... 328-329 
of man, water, and wind at Merv...... 8345 He 
of the Zerafshan River (glacial origin of 
LOGSS) Peart, LN MER ettiee aie are 281-282 
of ancient dune-sand interbedded with 
the Anau delta clays........ 327-328 


in the Aralo-Caspian Basin, variations 


ity aIMOUnt Ola se Ce ae 292 
“1 Sp eae a ot Pliocene ASia sania as oe 243 
of Gobi (uptilted borders of).......... 243 
the Northern Pamir an extreme....... 251 
GhGreatykK ara Wile cements aerate: 251-252 
Gehlation ol Kara kolirs. cen cca eee 253 
preservation of ancient topography on 
PATI tee ete eos Pte cree es 254 
valley of Eastern Karategin........... 266 
tz WaT en gave Matters! ences Lae 271 
sDaAtatiey pees Cee A es sitar. ee 282, ff. 
transgression of the Kara Kum....... 293-294 
Deserts, paystography: Ofte. a) sha len ee ees 243-298 
Desert basin as an organic whole......... 243-250 
essential ‘character Of axis. ican. ses 243, ff. 
three agencies of erosion and five deposi- 
AIOMIZONES 300 Be rayer aceite 244-246 
interlapping of deposition zones ina. 247 
the cyclical development of an ideal. 247-2 50 
Desiccation (see Climatic) of Tarim basin. 286 
PIE ENZATIO okie aiches sii cis asi pie sv) oe ee 418, 427, 430 
DAES ere Ree tere: ospoee sae a a 352 
Displacement, orogenic evolutions in the 
CeSert DASUUKt wire sets ccletere ete es 249 
Distributaries, unstability of the Murg-ab, 
and their effect upon man.. . 331333 
BISIEL ESE A TRL ola an tate a APR oe as 3% 390, 391 
Dillan-oott Darya sii ci rantdnatitete vis eo '0s 318-320 
Dog ancient Meyptian 1... 26a eed /. 0k. 352 
Assyrian and Babylonian............. 352 
PATEST TERNS ATE SE Pe Seal he. 348,. i). 
brought from Inner Asia to Europe. . . 354, 430 
GANS O are So tarp ts 5 iy Se eee 348, ff., 435 
OLPA MAIL D sx nee ser cheeses ncratn spelen Hee 348-354 
TEIACTONSIN) Olirerter-ratetedera)a\ tar eta 350 
tables of comparison with dogs of 
Eurasia and Africa...... 348, 349, 353 
SLOSH ES Ak ee oe erie do wee yun wate adds a53 
of Bohemia, pariah.....0..02.% 3. 349, ff. 
shepherd got ace tase pkeees eae gee OR 349, ff. 
CC ALY 2 Face aee nhc a ee ee Role ee 39 
Domestic animals, census of, in Turkestan 
IME TQOF srs Hels Oe ee eae 433 
relative percentage of, in Cultures I and 
Liat tAna ars aetna tars 438 
POMARIVEL catenin tetris) herka ehut alate levee ta 292, 297 
SOLID Olan eh tee Alore rc rey Nix ea e's See. 8 388 
DON US =tatlin tere ee rete erate a meePohe fe qcie ce ester: 288 
DD ORGO QING esctate toy te lairy oe o/s oe M lnk re oar eles 403 





PAGE 
Drainage, recent decrease in surface....... 322-324 
EMCeUSE POLS Py Liat ma ietatels Cay 3 dee toe ee 449 
description of animal remains from exca- 
WationsiateA nat. syeeteee ens 341-442 
SES A ue aoe Mm iasteers Los eens 405, 406, 408 
Dunes, dune-sand, etc., see Sands. 
LuShetraibe lives sete «7 ee Cree 2 ee 270, 459 
Dust.cyelonie-stormis ‘of; oa) oe Oe ad ks 244 
precepitated as loess...) 20a Pook. Cane 244 
Coe seteling cround of: 2.2.65 Sse eee 243 
absence of dust deposits on Pamir..... 253 
RMA INTEC ia ey in Ae OA RAN 318 
|G Ae8) 5 AS go ae a 302, 334, 440 
RACHEL eee en eh ei oso, ee ok 416 
SE PRINS oS 2 ans oS obs ON 9 hak rw 295, 296 
Bees OREM Pere Yoana Perot oe ah ane e 273 
Equus OSTTUUS rae et Mees eS 403, 416, 417, 424 
CUOGMUSM Rai go's oe as dnd Aah +s 390, 395 
PRGIDOt PONV 22 oes i eine os 416, 421, 422 
caballus domesticus «oo. i ie cece cus 360 
COOGTTES JOSST GA ee Dyin Oe a oes 402 
caballus fossilis Riitimeyer, the ances- 
tor of the oriental and occiden- 
Leh CES aeet ee wertorirste & /e-spércte > 431 
caballus fossilis robustus seu germani- 
GIES IN ELIIT Sion ncaa te, 42 Af chaser a 28 
CADGHUS PEFMANICUS® 2% va. ween ss 398 
caballus germanicus seu robustus...... 399 
COUGH AES IGUAL S ile] tlehalo Se os cle «26 « 384 
caballus nehringt.......-..+..: 398, 399, 420 
thetoGrestitiyoe arr cderom cz. vere: 430, 431 
caballus pumpellit..... 397, 398, 412, 413, 417 
418, 419, 422, 423, 424, 426, 429, 430 
MGyEY Pe Of TNE COSELT xe 6c a. win es 431 
caballus robustus Nehring, the type of 
CHEISHEN PES ay mk mie eos Asie e's 431 
OGRA Ti incur he OS Oe Cee OE 398 
hemtonus . . . .387, 388, 389, 392, 393, 395, 396 
hemionus (var. kiang)......... 387, 390, 391 
VU LTONLCUS eee Pe eA 3h OE oy dis 402 
eNO Geen Git Gd Oe Oper RR 428 
ONDZEY Me ees 387, 388, 390, 391, 394, 396 
YT TNS SE Bons Cech) ge Canes ERO ee DLPo ae 401 
PUSCUNENSES Danan tet en ates Sante st ann Maks 428 
PILGULCH SON ELE port ast ern alae oie 28 
PU ZC AIS RUD date ecae oe 387, 388, 390-398, 401 
411-415, 419-426, 428, 429, 431 
GUAT LOCI Sen oy ot eisieploteey olan aheie eine 402, 428 
quaggovdes affinis Woldrich.......... 428 
POOUSTUSER Nec Mone A tact as Gunes wer «oo 401, 417 
SUVOMIO WSIS Loe etc se Rett Es ee 428 
SDELBUS OR Sto ets sie Hale eisbs eM gare Abn 402, 428 
SLENONUS] oes. «as hoi 395, 390, 402; 417,418 


420, 421, 422, 423, 428 


stenonis affinis W slarich aces. cts orate 428 

PERSO SS eos ie sctnha Lae ONG EO tes 416 

yi Le ae eo tiim rig elon lores Qos an, ees 334 

Erosion, the agencies of. .............0.4. 244 

manasa geologic factor in............ 299 

in the obliteration of kurgans........ 303-307 

Erosion cycles of an ideal desert basin..... 247-250 

ChHemeAamiicn were shits aweaelels Bae ev ctytens 259 

PHOEA ATEN AG Vemcaaratkattr res cohen > sakes 264 
general discussion of the duration and 

Memmi Ue Of A cc.0s heats as sae 267-268 

Katateoin andy bissatine. occ. em ctae a « 274 

the Zeraisnan Valleyeceme: dee ates 277-282 

AWa\auarit, Ac tteo.o ccecto tee Gua boae ee eICnCR to he 286 

EerA TateMOuntai 1S nese a iaeente torres ets 287 

the Begonia Basins. ota: 2 wh an Sea sree 290 


1V INDEX. 


PAGE. 
Erosion cycles—Continued. 
the Aralo-Caspian) Basin’ ao ane 298 
the Anau. Sa... 2s ewan ee eee te ee 322 
growth and oscillations of the Anau delta 
during the various nic.n 1s = 330 
HskimoS acs: scbik bre cro crenata 459, 460, 461 
Euphrates, cick eicAeed Boa pee eee 437 
Evolution of a continent.,..sstme trent 243 
desert: basin sui akknge ht 22k eerie 247-250 
EX 00f; POLY 25.6 en wae ern eee a 414 
Faiza bad - ic smpeeteeie omen ceeley Orns Raters 272 
Fault-scarp in the loess plain of Hissar.270, 272*, 274 
Fergana, abandoned oases of............. 317-320 
Fergana Basin, physiography of.......... 287-290 
Fischer, Hos fin sss sWrw ck 2 ee ee 452 
Kish traps of the Kazil Sus. eee eee 271% 
Flower, Wi. Harkins hess eet area 459 


Horsyth Ma jore|ia Corwen 386, 394, 402, 405 
Fowyents Aut cok ke cee ielee ee eae 403, 419, 429 


Fox fromsAnauts so <p oe atten eae 345 
table of measutements of 7.2. 7:,.2 5... 345 
tabular comparison of, with Eurasiatic 

FOXES sateen 346 

Fraas, Odckoiss «nse ee a ere One e 403, 416 

Frank, T......386, 388, 401, 406, 408, 412, 417, 429 

Fuegians..vastihon suena 457, 459, 460, 461 

Gaillard? <3. 3t.20 copes 0s Ais abn one eee B73 

Galeha.. ¢ sis saserece creas oie ee aes errs 265 
See Tadjik. 

Galcha: dialecticowapioscs> =e sone ee ke 312 

Galchas. . . 2097, 2707, 314", 315%, 316* 

Galcha Beg with his hunting eagle’ ei g cee 266* 

Garm 2's. sadn ale coe ee Se ress 269 

Gaudry,; Alber tiie sa setae ats cena ene 433 

Gazella subgutturosa Gueldenstedt......... 382, 435 

Genghis Khatsi.sia sls 2s yassceeee eae 332 

Gera .octs diohen ley oottene Ae mPa ee x eee na 414 

Gervais) Patil aos 05 <n cyoeaie 3 were easrerainee ete 345 

Ghiaur Kala, rapid deflation of the ruins 

during a sandstorm.......... 303 
physiographic shaft-explorations in. . . 333-337 
Glacial petiddisse% 65522. eee coon eens 250 
climate and conditions on the Pamir 
during thesceaaesae toe 256-257 
four epochs on the Pamir during the. . 254-257 
in the Alar Valley s.c coy seen 261, ff. 
in the: Zerafshan: «<\.;n se. 2--eee ee Pig heke sf 
correlated with the late ‘‘ Aralo-Caspian 
Dea. si te A ae eee eae 294, 298 

Glacial zones of ice mantles. ..i.66..0.4..- 245 
acceleration of each erosion cycle...... 248 
obstructions to stream erosion, preser- 

vation of ancient topography 
on Pamir hint eee eee 254 
clays deposited in Lake Kara Kul...... 2555 Is 
troughs in the Trans-Alai Mountains. 263 
alluviation of the Zerafshan gorge during 
the second and third erosion 
cyclesie:ni 5). ce anes 277-279, 281 
origin ‘of loéss=- era ee ee ee 281-282 
Glaciation of the gorges of the fourth erosion 
cycles, sites wan cee 279, ff., 282* 
Glacier ice-mantles of the Pamir during the 
first and second epochs...... 254-255 
ice of second epoch preserved under lake 
sediments of Kara Kul.°..... 256* 
Glacier of the Zerafshan, differential uplift 
and‘advancerole-sbeen. ee 280*, 281* 
of the Tokus Kungei."), .ntGoesnwewe « Pop eee 








PAGE. 
Glacier—Continued. 

Varkatelnita se 9 byes tees ote selene 282* 
of the Karaca tem iem sce cena ee 255* 
northeast ofmKiara Kail eines ee rere 257* 
Glacier-thrusted allttviuim: 5. 7.2 ase elena 279* 

Glaciers, coalescing fans or piedmont glaciers 
of the second epoch.......... 255 
of the Pamir, pectiliarities of ....-... 22 258 
differential uplift and expansion of..... S754: 
Glory 2s Ae ee eee 272 
Goatof Anat TL; soa dart ee ree 380-381 
table of dimensions and comparisons. . 381 
Cretan <, save scic 5 ae ORIU eee eee 380 
GObtRA a eden meen ers ee eee 244, 249, 282, 398 

Grass, settling ground of dust from the Kizil 
Kn 22 Hee oA ae ee og fst 
in the: Alay Valley <> ce Soe. curso eres 260 
during the glacial period.............. 298 
brackish water, and wire-,............ 252 
areas shrinking in Fergana............ 290 
Gtisonsis. ainsi Saree ere piste eee 415 
Gross Czernosek........ 367, 381, 411, 419, 425, 426 
Grotte dw Pontil 4... .2-5 7a. eee ee 375 
Gruim-Grshimatloz .. Se. 2. ape eee eee 402, 429 
Guanchass 2707.25: ee cee orotate 456 
Gulbrandsdals iki cs oe: ote ee 415 
Gulcha foie 20s ip ae ce ace ee oa 289 
Gulcha River :o2 5. 0.2204 ebee ae eee 289 
Gyaours River vanishing: ....°...c.. eee B28 
Ha wee. cide som « Sng Sn eae ee ene ee 269 
Hallstadts..¢.. S252. seas decease green ee 410 
Hensel Or ..0 5 250s op ep bw eter ee ee 421 
Hepbtirn 24 05..t ye cea ee eiceire eee 451 
Heschelermocncci bree 392, 393, 394, 416, 426 
Hickory s00. vv 5 ee etek eects ae 273 
High valley oases... .... 4.60 sos oe 301, ffs 
of the Zeraishan suc. acc sme eee 311-313 
Hindu-Kisie ovis eats ere einen tere 251 
Hep partots. a. tdci wil aera 395, 397, 422, 424 
Hissar, ancient route frome. aac. cre eres 310 
Gitadel Of 024 Ue ee a 316, ff., 320* 
{NOUNEAITIS ©...) toe eee ee 272, 2746 
Hissar Valley, preservation ofkurgansinthe. 306 
physiograpity, Ola, whe as eee 270-274 
Hodja Mussaii Ashar}... i050>503 <1: eee 314 
Hommel F 5 ige he ee eee 351 
Homo Primigentus ne oe ses odaie sg cine 454 

Hordeum distichum, chaff of, in pottery of 
J Gat- 5 la! Arena crareten RA inspira nr 472 

Horse of Anau, Equus caballus pumpellir 
Diterst’s Si, skaters cee arene 387-397 

tables of measurements comparing with 

other subfossil equids, pre- 
molars and molars... 387 
dental indices. 5 2 heat 388 
JAWS F506 fo 2 Fees eo ee 390 
indices of metacarpus tertius.......... 391 
Scapiilacsites clots cage: tetas trans 391 
humerus, radius, and metacarpi....... 392 
fenivr aid tibia h ata sa, yenlace oo 393 
metatarsi and phalanx Iand II........ 394 
phalasux IT], astragn lis. 2 ooh cas anee 395 
type and-relations of cic. caucuses ee 396 
meta tarsus tertulus a sacs es aware ea ec 396 
height of withers sian sheers tee 396, 397 

characteristics of Anau horse summar- 
TZOO a teh ee ete teens 397 
Horse of the Quaternary period of Europe.. 402 
prehistoric, Giese. vive es = heen cee 1 4038 
the neolithieiager tween. ee aneriate 403 


INDEX. Vi 











PAGE, PAGE. 

Horse—Continued. Horses, fossil, subfossil, and recent—Continued. 
tHe COPPEMiaAl Cam a wtertaccusee culersiancee ie 410 LB TE hel sinners o os cin ean ten ete eam 412 
La Dene times) signee < ces sccsiens dng Sisal 410 European diluvial....... 391, 394, 395, 416 
Halistadtitime ss. beans eee racket: 410 Exim oonmponyienua sha te ain 414 
PROMIAN <CLIMESin Mere cioiews EL Wipes aoruncatt 410 Fativen tems eas reeves 419, 429 
craniological difference between ass and Cekak ye tne apo iiies sds ounphernaeme S 414 
HOPSew cetacean aes 404 German (small), bronze age....... 396 
skulls of prehistoric horses............ 4II German diluvial :pemwctiacistan st 391, 416 
EGE TROT 258 ee gush, asp dausin, @hs My nc REA He > 411 Ret AGORA 2) tien d lad cuttns Heaneem 412, 415 
the skull and its proportions.......... 414 GrossiCzerlosekie rer 4II, 419, 425, 426 
PORES CV PO naa cs afeissl sho letele: aig oeisteS 399, 431 SHAG saal .,o5...00  ecaemaceane we 415 
GESERE TVD Cor meukes iaicl> sarees FinpeLe Gates 399, 431 EHelveto-Gallic) (iron) 74... .6- «6 410 
SLEP Pe Ly DE rs aeipesic i ceetewusye tir ees ves chet 399, 431 RIOIST CR 42 bh oi 0b ss oc eae Mak ero es 412 
STAC OMIA cen uesars ore. spas eid tbc. omaveney asa 434 Hostomitz (iron, La Téne)...390, 411, 412 
thew egtiatvs Ol MH UrOp es dancin ess te bere 28 414, 415, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 425 
only one type of, on Eurasiatic continent PEORIA TN Soper sb ye ipiene iene ewinrarshe wis: a. 415 
in Pliocene and Pleistocene ig ciiaitipa cere it rere. Scrat RA Be co: 390, 412 
time, of which Equus przewal- Kal nny Keer eta a teen ent 394 
skit is last wild representative.. 428 PB UUGEIIT ie coach Goa tm alos 415 
regional racial differentiation of, conse- Kesslerloch (diluvial)....391, 392, 393, 394 
quent upon regional changes in 395, 412, 413, 417, 421, 423, 425, 429 
climate and vegetation in post- K6nigsfelden (alemannic)411, 412, 414, 417 
PIACIA, EINES 4's) ao as ie aes os 429 PSOE DER rs. occ cee aiaiecieiee «| wt 418 
the horse of the bronze age and early iron Kutterschitz (neolithic).414, 415, 416, 417 
age of Europe was the Anau JE ATIO IAG CS Gre MeN cael, (tees yannoie a hae 425 
horse, Equus caballus pumpellit. 430 GAs enes(iron) tanner b 301, 392; 3930415 
this latter used in ennobling Roman 418, 425, 426, 428 
IOLSES ee ee eg er cea es 430 Leitmeritz (neolithic) . . .391, 392, 419, 429 
Horses, oriental group (broad-fronted)...... 386 Benaskiimersrasmciey ewe os scton « 391, 393, 394 
occidental group (narrow-fronted)..... 386 ie bs alisenanertacrrcie avers cess vis as A4It 
cause of characteristic differences be- TGV OUIILZ skeet tate ckexcyerenera) 6 aut ccd Shred 411, 426 
tween the oriental and occi- WG ttrd eSerwav enters crates eis eMail 392 
dentalforoupseriea ce eee 2 or 398-399 Lottwerné (neolithic), .’..4....... 392, 419 
fossil and subfossil, and characteristics.. 402 ISITESCLICE Za eyaed el siacheh ys Stas sty eh as 415 
broad and narrow-fronted............. 416 Djachown Island eetieer ctec occ 's 2s 394 
Cuilinyial or CrOrmaan ye mye ecto tts sh. ce 416 IMadelainesmemar ya rc. cottons +. 392 
of Solutré and Kesslerloch...........- 416 Moehringenieeysa rei: crs oolaels i's 410 
index of basilar and palatalregionof.... 416 IMoossecdOrim wet ee cuscn tc. nsle sic ok 415 
comparative table of cranial dimensions INussdort (dilitvialjion. ssc. ce «54 5 414 
of, in Equus caballus pumpellir Occidentalieeris sciences: 401, 412, 430 
and other subfossil horses..... 417 ot Arabs and Berbers... .. -). +. ...399, 431 
comparative tables and discussions of the Oriental eee dtm ¢ 401, 412, 417, 430 
bones of the extremities. .... 417-426 Petersinsel tan pace stevie w lated eke a 425 
calculated sizes of diluvial and prehistoric 426 PinZoalion, sos. eee sn « 412, 415, 417, 418 
INCL WSI OLS: seep ey Os imaa shears) Secheueesy es og 427-433 Quedlinburg (diluvial)............ 391 
tabulation of points of agreement as basis Remagen (diluvial)......... A412, 413, 414 
for determining relationship be- 416, 425, 426 
tween the various diluvial and RixdOrt te seen ss ake oe oe ats 6 419 
DLEUIS COT Comte ries plete peea i 427 DAIL A Vek sete es <wheren eee aE? 392 
census of, in Turkestan in 1903........ 433 Schellenken ty: wer" ciel sae > cers 411 
fossil, subfossil, and recent: Schlossberg (iron).......391, 392, 393, 418 
PMIDASGI ES en clerstctier sath pete ena bases) oes 414 419, 425, 426, 427 
PASC ENN <tarepaustopetotts ed eokeiiog chen ptet geese) eyes 415 Schuettarschen (iron, Hallstadt)..41o, 414 
NTE a MTG ee A teeci Ma mite iacga resis, sons 411 415, 416, 417 
pA Ttast Ca Viele use poe cataeenee sot, = 387 Siberia (diltivial ies sto. st eiciere ots) 393, 429 
SATADIAM meatier oe me hayehe a ak 412, 414, 415 Siberia) Mastericn cs ssescteas esters «21 390 
AT OCTZO Sea MS che lere ceceestecsts. 8 © Seen 427 Siberia, Wester, on. benen 387, 388, 390 
IA SIatICs TECOM (sp arisieueas son akin oye coe BO 80H SODHUSAM Py ste. cuetecsdouss «+ yes cuedemernets 415 
AGIA IC MST DLOSSil omar ieien te aie ior 392, 394 Solutré (diluvial and paleolithic) . . 392, 395 
Auvernier (bronze)...... 409, 410, 411, 412 AIT, 413, 419, 421, 423-427, 429 
413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 426 Somme (neolithic) s-. yeesmen ele 414, 417 
BoOulogherer ree cieed cine teak oe 414 Spandau (bronzéage) 3.24." o. 3 396, 420 
IBFIGSEN coe 5 hie alten Sar S opcieir. A415 421, 425, 426 
Cardamonec. amine arin sit 395, 418, 420 SCAMMCOW LEZ ete setter a aici eeeeneeacl 16 418, 419 
421, 423, 424, 427 inedel(diltivial) ns. «3-6-7402, 40 304 27 
GAVErner byt oe tise ete mat tier Se sib 392 LHOLOugh oLreds BritiShi eine tetera 414 
Cindren(paleolithic) mee. es) 392, 419, 429 dtalacyyer" ay eens Teme Cee n tt tack 415 
SOULV TES ree ttne ar erie aia ceeds os 392, 419 HUSCDONMtESCHItZerree pee eieisicbeteiene eon 420 
Gureh yarns derek aa hte a ak 392, 419 ‘Markestatlaieieie ss fae ess 390, 392, 426 
DEV CM ZANIO Saye ches ai ehe te ket orsas tase) 418, 427 Vindonissa (Roman). ...393, 394, 395, 410 


i Vie lee sue ee reteas(coet icke ea henna 411 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 425, 426, 427 


vI INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Horses, fossil, subfossil, and recent—Continued. 
Westeregeln (diluvial)...392, 395, 396, 412 
413, 418, 419, 420, 421, 423, 425, 426, 427 
Wohontsch (neolithic).......392, 419, 429 
Yana River (diluvial) . ..387, 388, 392-396 


Zielkanal (bronze-iron).......... 415, 426 
Hostomitzae 5 seer ee 367, 390, 411-415, 417-421, 425 
Houghton. 4255 2 eee ee eer neta eee 352 
Houses, construction of adober.....2+ ers 300* 

varieties and relations to growth of 
KuUrcans) So 2 See eee ree 299-300 
grading from sun-dried brick to cobble- 
SCONE. 27 crete eotete ote nae 313 


Human remains of five adults, from North 
Kurgan at Anau; anatomical 
measurements and racial com- 


PATUSOLS Ao ake «nc ie! ese eee 449-468 
Human records classified geologically....... 299 
Humphrey. 22 tea soe eee 459 
Hunger Steppe 7i...:.<6ec cece eae eee ee 295 
Huntington, 12. .0n oe es oe 27.5, 302, 305 
Hyak, Darya Sapte 7 ee eee et eee 2712 
Tbe Anan wesc oes Go aie one eee 260 
Icé dottien A Race tiie eee ee ee 2560* 
Ice cave of the Zeraishan:.......%....5.270, 278" 
Teeland. if 57sc< ¢3 5 08 «ean ee ee eo 415 
Iceland Ponveston: > aie Seen ee ee 416 
Inscriptions; Arm bic. is oe ac 2. + «ee eee 316 
LOUL: 6.5 ah pheasants oe eee Oe or eee 512 
lori Kargay ty is cco ee ae eee BIA, ary 
Irkeshtand oct dace oe eee 308 
Tron, Door:2'¢). 5 cas ordi auene se 308 


Irrigation terraces, abandoned..........326*, 327* 
Irrigation sediments, irrigation terraces, origin 


and descriptionvola 2 eee e 325, 326 
tabulated with deposits from man, 
water, and wind ares aes 28 
how they are recognized. ... soas...5-- Bo 
interbedded with ‘‘canal sediments”. . . 336 
Iskander (Alexander)... cesses cs scene ae srr 
Iskandeér, Kala ences 05.0 ae te ee nae 
Japanese a ae ey eee 455, 459, 460, 461 
Jaxartes Rivets wine. acces eee eee ee 310 
Jettteles cncigt 2) sa Oia i ee ee ee 350, 353 
Ke Grnigan 2% 5 ied hee, g ui Skee 270, 274 
Rak Passi. casi Sued teins cee eee eee a 
Kanaka 2 20 or te nee nao akc ee 270 
Kara BUgassosiy oes oe enh oe ae ee 245 
Karakorum oe.ec oe i ere te ee 249, 251 
Karta: Kul sete men cesarean 251-259, 251* 
Kara; Kin deserts.) eee eee ee 398 
Scie Ahearn AL Oe Hees 297, 324, 330, 435 


Kara Kum, ancient and modern dunes of.. . 327, ff. 

transgressed by the inland sea........ 
Karatagh:.< eee ee oe ee 
Karategin and Hissar, physiography of... . 265-274 


Kata Tepe (Westera) .: <i ue. ae eerie Bigs 
Karaul Tepe sand ae eee eee ary 
Kashgar. 0a. oved ys Seen gee 282 

ancient route to bactrae een rien 308, ff. 
Rashka Su 0). ei eee ee 261 
Katta Kara Mule oe oe ee oe 259, 265 
Kavastin ws ts eth. oak nun eee ee 317 
Keller, Civatdie: face ae eee Up ia AEE vote! 
Keita.) et. cepuiet atin se gee ae ee eee 403 


Kesslerloch . c= s+ «2 $91, 802,894, 398, 412, 413 
Al], 421, 422, 423, 425, 426, 427, 428 











Keyak /Boshtsiis as cg docs ei) oe 259 
Khojent.2iws ss eve reick.. GW: Cc eee 289 
Khokand 33: eae) ¢1aeak fee ele aes eee 362 
Kiang seach 1s ee ties nes ees 387, 390, 391, 392 
Kei bithas hie ech de aisdia thea ute eee 260, 312 
Kirghiz sit tithe. ee in Rae ae ee oe 253, 260, 434 
Kirghiz making fel tase 6 sae eden eee 261* 
Kirkendorightshire:¢.:2. nee. e ree deena 362 
Kirsten ets eas 26, Aes soe eee 407 
1 Eon 8 argeee Perea ea IEer an rd e hG hocactpitedid 353 
Kizil Arty, deseeis «sss ce se oe eee 263 
Kirzil.. Sie aaetaee eto nee mee 258, 259, 261, 269, 265* 
OFT ATING o5,05i 2. oelosis eae ee 282, 283 
terracesim the. Alai S.ise.ne 263, ff 
gorse ol Kafategin. on. see eee 265-269 
abandoned valley of'..(.:1: ..%0 Mie ee 272 
terraces nino oe ee 267*, 268* 
Klaatschs 8%. eval ocne sens ecco ae 451, 454 
KodishariKurgan ee eee oe 315, 316, 319* 
Konigsteldén.te save ace eee ALI, 412, 494,427 
ISofis ini fee akete ions aoe sich cane oe ee 292, 294, 296 
Kopet Dagboide Snes aes 244, 292, 347, 357 
379, 371, 376, 395, 435 

Mountains, as seen from Anau......... 324 


Mountains, block uplifts and develop- 
ment of the topography of... . 322, ff. 


Kotan. Darya: ...55 0s esis aisha 283 
Kowalewskt... ..3.c<tcsscheroa eeee 405, 421, 422 
Kraemer, “Hii 20. oe eres 351, 385, 398, 399, 410 
414, 418, 420, 429, 430 
Krasnovodsk 2.4... onan eke eee 295, 296, 302 
Kreéisprirben.|.. si: och sc selsunee vate erro neem 418 
Kttla nis Pe eis neni a ons ieee Dor eee eae 394 
Kurgan, calculation of the amount of erosion 
on North Kurgan, Anau...... 305 
Kurgans, see Culture Deposits. 
KRatterschitz acc eee te eee 414, 415, 417 
Lacistridn 20ne. 0. access cee) Seen ee 244, ff. 
evolution of, in an ideal desert basin. . 247, 248 
Lake. Kiam Kult 09.300 2e oot ee 252, ff. 
Lakes of the desert, temporary or permanent.. 244 
their organic relationsin the desert basin. 244 
interior brackish lakes, climatic and oro- 
genic control of the salinity and 
Surlace-area Olona nee 245 
Lake-store oases (type Vine. see 301, 302 
Landslides, silting of lakes formed by...... 282 
of the Zerafshanin the third erosioncycle 277 
Langugest « c.xitat Gem cress tee ie eee 425 
Larval ene oh here eee 356, 390-392, 397, 410 
415, 418, 425, 426, 428 
Lea’ Valley. ai! cates eat is eee ee 375 
ueberon) Mites ee ncamiorthe tgsl cee a eNA 424 
Leboweqy .. 55 sis = siriphstens a cares holmes eres 459 
Lebmanny Dr issn ttre ent eee 404 
VehmanneNitsches i eissccusat mcr seiaen ere 453 
Lertimenitz asrtucitee er oe 391, 392, 403, 419, 429 
Tet So oes 2 sere a esr es agers Geneon sino Gaeta 391, 393 
Lesbte; Qo ssue steno. pa eae ae 405, 406, 407, 408, 409 
TOSS86 hc iors pe' 4 crags @ open ns eps) o ahaha aastuueganae eieione 296 
Tiébshawseney nti oc.4 sacra teaie 6 nine eae 411 
Ti POr Zi seechenchcve seeceds aoe ma oo Sate eeekeoetae Ree 397 
Tea grits Oia epg sta inga ve unahsveten eee Oe 411, 426 
Ljachoweaie. osteo hiatester gant oe gatas 394 
LOG-ROG.)7: tale ope he ae ale ee ae 283, 286 
Loess, a wind-blown derivative of alluvium 
and uncovered lake sediments. 244 


also derived from deflation of the arid 
heights of Pantine: i4...07 22459258 
i thevA lait Walley crac event use mre 260-261 


INDEX. 


, PAGE. 
Loess— Continued. 
fault-scarp and deep accumulations of 
loess in the Hissar Valley. ...270-271 
derived from the flood-plains of glacial 


AT VAL ETOLIA ene ie eae 281-282 
section of interbedded loess and allu- 
SVACLED Soyer ce tne, ton ena ete 282, 284* 


erosion surfaces of dead loessin Fergana. 
accumulated during the past in the Aralo- 

Caspian Basi. ss orm ae 298 
as a protection against the erosion and 


obliteration ofancient kurgans. 306 
UCRATIOU eee ie codeicNe eee niet eae 328 
underlying the dune-sand and alluvium 
at Mery 2.) ial Ora. tis ce 336, ff. 
recent warping of the Samarkand loess 
SEP OG ate ehors a erties cians emia on 281 
RATIO TERN ee eared ets, taPncvars acecteaee ok ee a 345 
Mrosidoimewall Ge Prost 5 Ansa ses ee Res CY ATCY LS 
HOOMIUCLES Aut E Bees oce.s, 4, Sr het atone, ogee, 2 RRS 392 
AACHINGETN Ginn vin it atric es ie is oie aes) e's 392, 403, 419, 429 
TTC S HOM Came a cree a cats chasis Ge atta 392 
I EPERIOS 1 TNO Abas oro Gm cle Cae Rene oie ene 360 
RSESCHEEZ ct, nest ei Re AE Ss ETS 415 
TUtSCH Gara ate As tewe «Saab ett: Smee) skye ets 383 
HEMOGKK Er rate anit ee Mills SRS ease les 370 
SEG HOES ra ca 5 samcneiois Gave ool neers ero 392 
msior-f; CoForsyth). 55 cs. 421, 422, 423, 424, 428 
MALAY Seye Ac nan Selene sivas e eel he aac 455 
Metta Sa 2 COLOSICHACLOLe. cine iialsio +o Pie aries s 299-301 
is Este) GUL iid a Eke yi a. ho OCR ON Re BLOy ff 
Mer ISG Ke wr me ver race eg tees. cs « fefe «ahs, 0 434 
LETS EMG OMe y. Pika reine etaes so ckespediaade es sya 324 
ETS a CS ae as en ae 322 
Ii KTV {eel lly ay clay ct GS. ONO CeCe eee 292 
MAMOUVIel, Lee. seer t te - 451, 455, 456, 458, 463 
Mise Leese ALI covert nee see iw, ShoaayersisSenate ts 273 
Maracanda, see Afrosiab. 
INUIT AD ITE ete) Sy cho elie) a ah ss epee eke oviu cy 6 tieiue sles, bo, c. 435 
NEARER [etree eet terre Wakes) Syke wea n-cipony «8 ¢ 410, 42 
MVEeUE Lele Th Resta Seen ea KAS hS Sierra aes) sys 2h a a, 3.5 287, 317 
VET ea Stl cee, Wear seen cee eke es, «yc 254, 258, 282 
Martin, R..........---+-449, 453, 454, 455, 457, 459 
INMASCIIG  popereutenis cars rys xs ss Seine oes « 398, 402 
Mediterranean connected with the Tertiary 
Wea OMASIO nen ert cits, «. <4: 292 
MELEMESIANS neces ger ticle iy seh pe ace 459, 460, 461 
BERT AGUS OF ANCICUL « 5. ios. aie ah aay ly a 331-337 
Millitinskaya, river-cut mounds of........ 318-320 
8 ES Sg een ir ie ee eee: 309 
MMR Aer eee nee thee, Deke tien © poor dee 431 
BONN ert cede ton sctigrnas CMP GMA a MOI shew tea 431 
MRR RSTENE ees cgcitc ss ve. iy» oe ws. ale 410 
Mollison, Dr. Th., on human remains from 
PACIAT ML se. HCLL LL ae entereestter snares 449-468 
MOMPALei Lee arene. ere caer sit ts 405, 406 
NMGOSSCCUOLIS cae ckeLaehewricine haetccmste Fes eee aie 415 
Protaras On the Pare sco ds «sf clave de hes 254, ff. 
aero mal Valleys) ip Bhi cic 4s ora es 261, ff. 
in the alluvium of the third erosion-cycle 
terrace of the Zerafshan...... 279 
underlying the present glaciers of Pamir 258 
of third and fourth epochs............ 256* 
Mounds of Millitinskaya............ 318-320, 321* 
Mountain peak south of Zerafshan Glacier.. 276* 


Mountains, peripheral to a desert basin... . 243-246 


records of climatic changein.......... 247 
CYCHCAl MMOVentenmts Ol. elite 247-250 
OM thereainterreie «eminent Deve Hip 
Alatandelrans-Alaiws: casa vere | 250, if 
Ole KATA LED tlemmyectero ittitetcre, vctiis aceoen AASV fie 
HES ELISSAT Mea Se aR oie ola eek eae he Pir las 





VII 
PAGE. 

Mountains—Continued. 
dsiiterential- uplift ofs.. |: 707). eee as 6 275 


of half-consolidated gravel and uptilted 
piedmonts in the Tarim Basin. 282, ff. 


erosion cycles in the Alai............. 287 
upc of thé Tian Shans eh ania os. + 287 ip. 
relative heights of Pamir and Kopet 
ees, Dagh in former ages......... 292 
LORE EN ahem emt ale sect ak ois, ero 82, , 436, 437 
Mike Saw tied oc 52 cc avkue ene pee 
aaa Fe ects sees ee Ceo SMe Ls ele 310 
MAUEE ODEREVET s Wyss ova e hrlac aba Bem 295 
Murg-ab Delta, Oases of............ 330-337, 331* 
WEIS ChOI Mera e etarie ae on oes ie. ge shel ok | 296 
NEU SEL See Mee arth ate os ee AO Sed 5 384 
RAE M CI SUCG tener) ae bas scime nap tieucn tals oie cs che 375 
EWN SSG cota Shcee Gay Gite, SoCnEn aa a eer 375, 379 
INGATINE TUS A Tec ges ge ash Aistcia GP ohc is avoneouebite Woke 289 
NLT Dei Cha ae eae terete Aon OE Vaiss tiener yey 362, 369, 428 
Neandertal mantis. ays tc- armen aot 451, 453, 455 


Nehring. . . 355, 356, 383, 384, 386, 391, 392, 394, 397 
402, 405, 406, 408, 410, 412, 414, 426, 429, 441 


INGE TI COS oes een brie cace ers cutieai'e 455, 456, 459, 461 
INGOT OCSmr ets Tree eee. <7 455, 456, 459, 460, 461 
ie Wal are per an be characters Se ehtcliakey trai Miah di szy 363, 304 
News Caledomans mere sates a etn stanw oe 456 
INS soso So tal! onc GR Rr ee 202,437 
INGE Career a MR een eee nanct es toh alga fal oliche, shay etiohe 429 
INGTESCHIAE pero ee cies hc custaver aos. a nas 440 
INGUSS COL Kempen ctor Sie far se ad acangey 414 
Oasesy PUYSIOSTADILY Olena. desea «67.4 299-337 
Glassiiicatian Olawaeetese ee ee, 301-303 
OD Sarnia ser eels 2 aes eee se 5 ie 265-269, 272, 274 
Obu-siob canal) a loessicliff of:55.02....:.. 284* 
FELUAGHS COMATTOSIA Daisy. cist ee lah ole hie 
Odontche Tepe......... Oa Sa ae eee 334* 
OMA earns eee Pees ah ate ees atic ae 350 
Orogenic movements, preglacial........... alg 
OSBOrIT Fels: Manne eee eres ord Popeye Gal e's 402 
A SIETS a Pate Be rete 3 cee re ete ie cucitele’ as avate Mecca he 441 
DIAS Bo once COMI SORES an rE 289 
PUN, 2 ACoA a, AEN wt Ie ne 355 
Livine of Ana Vand Uo, cn coc eis aalt ae ZIOSIST 
OUISIOCICS te AAA os heehee res so 377 
aries palustris Riitimeyer..... 373, te» 439, 440 
aries steatopyga Witz. yen. c snes 0: 377 
OTUCS STUMETE Soc cre Mee BE Oka 375 
1) 21) ha Rese See ESE EIEO  CRROTE 371 

UF ROT ISE ATIC Capit ery sc sol stage ree es. 370 
ORRALEDOULSTF USS crite > las ie ee oa ole 
MIUSUIMON ON aa here easy Roce Aa ee 381 
CDRA an eae are Pek en, cee ee sar 
orcentales, Gimelitien «+. aaaet soe 370-371 
DIGIVUTE @LYPUNE. vow vioes oat cee B77 
PUALY UT UUCHOVUCH Wye asa is eee sae 376-377 

POE Greve te ees ayer ke bea Sy Mele tec 252 
Oa 8 2) 4 8 Rane RIN ark oc FS) cae EUR igdl fic 
vignet arkal Lydekker....... 8701372) 3751435 

tables of measurements and com- 

PATISONG cc hades dae eer Oe 371-372 

GN EVES CVELICN OR Le © Soccaie vin as 3 Cpe ae ae 370 
ammotragus tragelaphus............... B73 
(OWyet RE eaciieten es Gs alntiectess 386, 401, 404, 405, 409 
CORACUICH Cee ee OU Ce eee ate ithe: coher Soaeeet ca? 441 


Ox, domestic, of Anau I and II...........364-370 
tables comparing long-horned, of I, and 
short-horned, of II, with re- 
mains from Europe and with 
Egyptian long and __— short- 

HOrNEedyA PISs kisses sialon eke 366-369 


Vill 
PAGE. 
Ox, wild (Asiatic urus) of Anaul......... 359-364 
table of the measurements of different 
bovids.. goku ceme eReer ora 359 
table of dimensions comparing with 
other Eurasiatic finds........ 362 
in Babylonia and ancient Persia....... 360 
Sumerian Character10r.. eee ate 360 
was intermediate between Bos primi- 
genius and B. namadicus...... 364 
Ox, remains of the wild, of Anau I, studied 
CONIPALAtIVely wes ae eee ee 359-364 
long-horned domestic breed established 
Bt ADA nccc ich: eed ene 369 
identity of this with Egyptian Apis and 
Babylonian long-horns....... 369 
short-horned domestic breed of, in 
Ama ls xeric te ete re hee 369 
census of cattle in Turkestan in 1903... 433 
ORTIS TIVES science bon eee itereerneny atte see ee 265, 272 
(Amu Darya), recent changes in the 
COUtSecOle neg coe eee 295-297 
Packshittte ceosn gee cree nee meee tan 279 
Patkent oats ate eas ent cern eae ee 276 
ancient route LO Missate va-c se ee ee 310 
Paladrtt- es oc oat oe See es B75 
Paleotherum miedwimas,. ne oe ea 422 
Paleothervuamen nus rie cm ee ee eee 424 
PARI sie yok, cinta ois tena ey echs ee eee 277 
physiograpliy oOlzi-.k v6. sem eet 251-259 
PATSECS ac dhe tee kere tere ot gee Oh ee eee eg eee 442 
Patavonians: <;..0kie. oan tie oe 460, 461 
Pavilot, “Mime oot: deiner tne aa eee 405 
Parson yee ciamarehe rcs oe a ee oie eee 345 
Peking: 5.7. srg cesntoh tans Paap ee see mee 347 
Peneplain iia oct deci ee ee ee SON OS 
Petitvians i.) set eee a Ce eet 461 
Pétersinsel ea. deta eee ee ene 397, 425 
Peter-the-Great Mountains................ 266 
Pigs Ana Ieand: Dagens cept eee eee B55 
identity of, with Torfschwein of pre- 
historic’ Hurope.eshce aaa 355 
CUGDALYs. Ol SCUIOSSDELE. peer ee ee eee 355 
a Renan eek eee et ene 355 
neolithic Swiss lake-dwellings.......... 355 
Hirrasiahie wild boarl.3:tssess eee 357 
ot Angit. ae’ Ae set eee eee eee 355-358 
Cur bary Raita «eee ee ke See 355, ff: 
MaOris 2.27 nic dnc boc ae aes 356 
wild, of lake-dwellings................ 356 
Pildona es Jnana eee peak ee Ee eee 269 
PINZVAU - 6 nhs ase a CRE ee 412, 415, 417, 418 
Pliocene Aralo-Caspian Sea......:....... 293, 294 
Plomawild 225 <2 oa Oteren ee ee 273 
Poephagus sruintens. ane eee ee 363 
Polyiesians. Aes wee cee ge ee 459, 401 
Pomel. 3. be ene ont eee 384 
Poplar s\n. wuss, boo eee cca. tee ee en eee 273 
Pottery, chaff of wheat and barley mixed 
With Clay.Gl..y c.0- ase 472 
Precipitation, recent decrease in.......... 322-32 
oscillations of, in an ideal desert basin. .247, 249 
on the: Pamir ..,.20 5 con raeae. 34 0a SU at 
See Climatic. 
Prosperity Of Ogse9.... 41.9 se eee ee ee gar 
Przewalsle ere astra ate eer eee 383, 398 
Pumpelly eee 256, 286, 291, 304, 305, 341, 345 


351, 360, 375, 437, 440, 449, 478 
Pumpelly, R. W., on physiography of Cen- 
tral-Asian deserts and oases. . 243-337 





INDEX. 


PAGE 
Quaternary Aralo-Caspian Sea............. 293, ff. 
Quedlin burg 52 ota aor aa eee 391 
Rainfall, recent decrease in..........+-6> 322-324 
See Precipitation; Climatic. 
Ray Lancastets Fe iiss suic.s elt Apa eee 403 
Reinach 904) juceia s+. 20m, ee eee 441 
Remagen . . 397, 402, 412, 413, 414, 415, 425, 426, 428 
Rivers of the Aralo-Caspian Basin......... 291 
River-bank and flood-plain oases.......... BONG he 
of the lower Zerafshan.......... 310-311, 310" 
Rixdorf (dilrvial Torse) «0: «sons meee 419 
Robern hase focuses gid eke a ee ee 367 
ROBINSON aang, ce 4 aries oes ee ee 459 
ROCVALs cre ncrartin eeuieick isis 5/0 ee 317 
Rollestone. oatso., tia tateascec eae eee 355 
ROMEttE Sekine ths etaie side Se oe ee 273 
Roofs, thatched . rac.0- cn os eae ereeeee 273,075" 
adobe domes; flat adobe 0. eee 299, ff. 
Rosellint irish. acct utre se eae 352 
ROE Y Chee sewas 342, 355, 360, 373, 374, 381, 386 


403, 404, 405, 409, 410, 415, 421, 422, 423 


Salenski, W.. . .407, 409, 411, 412, 414, 415, 428, 429 
SAMarkand , si... chit = evel eee ee oa 276 
surface horizon of antiquity preserved 
from burial by warping up of 
the steppe.g)-. ate eee 305-306 
OASIS: Of fais onset e Sic ee eee 311 
upwarped loess steppe of........ 281-282, 283* 
ancient route from, to’ Hissar,..... 20. 310 
Sands (flying sands, dune-sands) : 
how derived by wind-work over alluvial 
Plaiws 0.5.42 aoe 
forming a great nucleus of dunes sur- 
rounded by the other deposi- 
tion! ZONES... ciety ee 
in the Alai Valley. 3. owues co ee 260-261 
residual from the deflation of old alluvial 
deposits in Tarimt,. atc son sce 2 
burying the ancient cities of Tarim..... 
invading the oases of Fergana......... 
ancient dunes buried below the present 
shore of the Caspian Sea...... 
origin of flying sands in the Kara Kum. . 
ancient and modern dunes of the Kara 
Kum and interbedding of the 
delta margins with them..... 327-328 
lying second in the Merv series (loess, 
dune-sand, alluvium)........ 336-337 
Sauson, A. «nin. sobs eee 401, 415, 416 
SAALENAY sei ss Ves Pew ee cee ee ee 
Sardai-miona gorge, physiography of...... 272-274 
Sargon of Accad 
bar Kamish , Sivcy ee aera ee 293, 296, 297 
DCHABi Ss oh ciosus 5 soci ts aaa oe eee 346, 274 376 
schellenberg, Prof, Fi. Creer anaes con ee 437 
on wheat and barley from Anau I..... 471-473 
von Schiagenweit, :S<s.4.¢h 50s Pe ee ee 416 
Schlossberg........ 342, 345, 356, 364, 366, 375, 379 
; 381, 391-395, 397, 418, 419, 425-428 
pchotidt, Dr. Hur, ieee ae ae eee 341, 477 
Note by o...0 tie eee ene ee eee 
ochuettarschen:..; 2.08 eee oer 410, 414, 415, 417 
Schussentied 4. sp sage aoe ent anes 403 
pe le NMS sy 453) 454) 455, 456, 457, 459 
Sergi, Prof. G., on human skulls from Anau. 445 
Shaft sections at Anau, tabulation of strata. 328 
Shafts at Ghiaur Eales. wee ee 334-337 
Shalmaneser I]... 2 ange geet see ee 


244 


INDEX. IX 


PAGE. 

meee. wid Of Atat-Iy......5 o.ru.k sewn: 370-372 
table of measurements and comparisons 

with Asiatic wild sheep....... B7O he 


was Ovts vignet arkal of Kopet Dagh.... 372 
Sheep, domestic of Anau I and II. . 341-342, 372-380 
locally developed out of the wild Ovis 
ONCE em er eee 

evolution of a large-horned, and of a 
small-horned breed (Torfschaf).375, /f. 


373 


MOMMess TOleA Tati) lemme cea cetera 376 
tables of measurements and compari- 
ee SOLIS Erni Sie ie pects: oo Ramenehe Ss 374-380 
identity of the small-horned with Torf- 
schaf of European neolithic 
Stations ere eer te ok aii 
census of, in Turkestan in 1903........ 433 
PURU TED lA Ky PASSE ert emitter ae Wetec 309 
LEV CLG MT er cree far ctccame tele Rick, ie eect nys 296 
Guk wover i Karatagh). 2. ..2..i....5% 23h 271% 
(STRATE acuglven Mire aoe it OMI ene aR eC pr 346 
Sinking of plains, evidence of.............. 321 
ve Eells asistencia A a 253 
Srivad ted ab Be £ catenin twe ite tei othe ree 428 
Skeletons excavated at Anatl............. 484-494 
Skulls, human, from Anau land II....... 445-446 
Sleds used instead of wheeled vehicles in the 
PEOLONUOMEISSdinten es sori 274,275 
Snow-fields, absent on the Pamir glaciers.... 258 
Soow-line on the Pamir... ::.....5......% 251, 255 
south sidéiof Trans-Alain............- 262 
SOLAU EROS Sails adhere bce One aeetn 415, 417 
DOMME. acces 2 392, 395, 397, 402, 403, 413, 421-429 
SETI TER | tan eyed eee sl ats) bie an a 368 
(SYevued 520) des saute Aig 5 heats odors Ae ee 296 
SOSHIMG eae ER Tek irate rers sever aisih ssc coaes os 417 
SHIATICA Lt. th ares es 6 fe) er 396, 414, 420, 421, 425, 426 
prerg GN WEL GASES. wea. cn nc ck so wind ws 301, ff. 
ELGG 1s Ge aa 453, 455, 459 
pe CLL COVULUCE petra t teres eater tse seas sta a ics ax 418, 419 
RSECIAMOSK UL Stra rs erotou Mere euets! ot sh specs. so. 0) 3, shes 384 
SEeTI a FEN, ecm SR Se RKOR Orn ie eee 286 
Stone implements from excavations at Anau 477-484 
LMC eral Mes. Sarasa: vocute c 345-347, 349-351, 357 
‘ 373, 391, 398, 410, 416, 440 
MUCHIANG Reet eer Trin aera e cre reine + 453 
RGM HAUT Une eral eile s.orciers <r clcre clctelse. 363 
SUT rg titer ences ASC ee OE Ieee 355 
SUilageband Darace.ma . tae. sae cm eysy eirieicis ew te 
SiichnasisRry Clase o nett mem ciietets nie ete. io 27 
SNA?» Slkkhke ge Belin Ee Ree: ane Become 355-358 
cristatus Miiller & Schlegel............ S555 ic 
AGIAN SIGS one hy ISR S OH OLOn-4 eae SERA Gy 
palustris Riitimeyer......... 355, 439, 440, 441 
SEEM EADIE SILCUE Solis chs Sato yasmanin < sno 355, i). 
SOROL FETUS sen cbse 2m Teta ie qyateetsgs she es 356 
vittatus Miller & Schlegel......... 355, fs 435 
Ronee ad CAT pt meat rs es Geen ine a up sredeye a! « cashes 251 
RIGS: (UNE I WEMMNOS: coin eine ote ne 5 oi = oe mus 342 
BPR IAL YO wiretap y shecniy i Sarin hd ge Stare 0 289, 295 
pA CILLIS@ aie teeta ene hocarciin mus ters ns sae ie eae 431 
"SOULS cat a eae ae eR eran aS po 2IO TST Lats 
Tadjik population of the upper and lower 
PRCCISHAM OT ade wb es oes 311-313 
(See Galcha.) 
Peres VMLICY oe tire rie otras Sire pvc ec. es oe 276 
OEY Ee SECT h abr ca -ec  whem te anar One a elec ita 248 
PNVEIOSTADNY O15 5% ace eee 2am phere ws 282-286 
evidences of peripheral uplifts in....... 262, 7) 
CP ar Deil varie teas tines cer tea an totaas ae ok 362,393 
PRCCUS ST ges beh wea ee ee ee ee a ec 308 


shatne Murty Passe: ee eieen een ate reir 259, 309 





PAGE. 
PeCGnE) EVOR: Cus vou. a4 pe on te eee 205 
ere Davoren 2c ok Se ee ee 308 
Terraces of the Zerafshan, 00... ., ..«. «.. 278% 
Matar Stee ee ce cot ere eee tte ee 285* 
Hizil Su in Karategin.. 2.44. 65s. ee. 267-269 
Wiley een pat cee alec a rom ae ste eee 391, 398 
ig’ C0 ive.) Caer a Neg lg et 273, 275% 
ES mee IL wists ten eR et ee 353 
SAIN ck a oe oe Suit ie oe Ge 412, 413, 427 
Blilvcnmacm ONCE ete otha ee sc cence oy eee 403 
MUEOTSOTIEA SY Pen er, notches ak oa Oe OR 457, 458 
ASE ORE e as Aerhe vee ss onan 243, 249, 292, 398 
I Se ae sen eeu e nee eS PHNGI, ON I a 
siltime delta. DUN Of... 2. os oonce ae cee aor 
EB eet te RAE oe oe ae ea SG a oe Bite 332 
Me tedter ar ys ese ys eee oe en 318 
IRM Sele hte ee de ahs oa ara se Ae 386 
Tokw Kungel Glacier. ....5......66.0-. 261, 262* 
Sod S85 egy Oa et Re eo Re 407 
ERC eae iPr yeh. AS antares eee 459 
Fee, es oe ae ae ee er 345, 346 
MEO ety cares Bh oladurchs. Sys spe ein ea sey 3 4 402 
Trade Routes, Alai Valley Route, Bactra to 
INAS HI Ae ete Aber elses e tiens 307-310 
objective criteria of ancient long-used 
POUCCS re one ehaeen otto cies: cunt) cteeiwwees 307 
controlling factors of trade routes...... BOs iE 
ancient cliff trail of the Zerafshan 
A CU Sc an oath eee ee ch ihe 6a 
dsams-Alat Mountains: 6 oe. 6.5 ee wee 254, 261 
Re Obagi So tis oie oes sce 264 
Transportation, three agencies of......... 244-247 
Dia Hea tACU OF oe acs es. ~~ 209, 324, 333 
Trees of American aspect in the Sardai-miona 
PULL aNnrn eM tin Cee ce aia; 273 
Eee ete enna crc ta ier s wale sos bey 415 
Triticum vulgare, chaff of,in potteryof AnauI 472 
Mscherskin se: 384, 386, 387, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393 
: 395 397, 407; 409, 414, 416, 428, 429 
dees Ts FL age ee 348, 356, 420 
TCO thOUP Tet Cee eiciay fas. os ss 295, 297 
RWI O WETS STE ek Ree sane wae sys, s'¥ 6. 324 
Sinkin a Of cna. treit oe v- Be rarnete cert ore 321 
MIST OTIAT LLORGCA mre tebe pene Aeros hoc ce 434 
Dupkoman) iiicationvat Anatte sass. 4... +5: BOR Hie 
EL Win Ci ete ee ent eee eas 459 
WWADERRel Re Reals = Fela: kim aia ee Hic aise oe tea 309 
Wivanin, General iy wss. 2 ore. haces Noes 317 
Unconformity between Tertiary and Quater- 
MAT Vetere cee reyes 284-285 
(UAUEREEES. 2 de iate rains cate olencn taco acumen ical n) Sactaaicr fica 297 
liter Grumbach ier cel eoe se errs 367 
(plittedsblocks or thevA later cert iene eae 290 


Uplifts of different times and degrees....... 277 

evidences of peripheral, in the Tarim. ..282, ff 
Uptilted piedmonts (marginal deformations 
of the plains) described and dis- 


cussed in general...... 249-250, 288* 
as a record of cyclical changes in the 
oj Ravohneld Sibi Ta 6 pasts Aero Ore 283-286 
Fergana Basin..............288-289 
alpMarclelati: meee cosas: cls fos ae Me ce 288* 
Uptilting piedmonts, preservation of kur- 
PATISCON Atay as cic) de otees ete 305 
ieiaia leak Caen: wines sic Pes gr orclh pace teers 364. 
amitar Kun atieersepr atric svc cles eke cos 315, 318* 
Wesbeo pee plese seer cies ook erie crt 27 OND 72 32 
WISDOM eiewen pecaacicisc rst Gre cletogeueesierci ses 296, 297 
Wissakovscys. Genend le crater. tlre een et enh iy 
St Ur teplatentivermenieterslts ests tak: 294, 296, 297 







> ® a 
y* é 
hes “a ' aa = i 
‘ - 7 
x INDEX. 
PAGE. d 
Vaksh Valley. .-... 03 ..0ss sess eee ence S65 1) Walekens, Bi Gw.ais,.0 06 -esin 386, 388, 397, a 
river, captured by the Kizil Su....... 272,274 | Wills, Bailey oo... 2.4 2.28 see ee ; 
Vain béry on ccnicouls ties sons ame atten oer BST yl WAM OWs civ Gorcdae sell eeees eon aoe nen ee 
Vanshan Darya iiie.cs ona eins ane 375 “| Wohontsch? soe -0..tetatepet ee ee 392, 41 
Vindonissa..... 356, 394, 410, 417-421, 425-427, 430 | Woldrich) J. No... 0..58. 50s 40 
Volga ‘river icadcachosals cae ee ee a 207, 402 + Wolf, trom Anat: (Po. 15.0 eee ets See, 
Volkov, Ye ..6 pace ee 459, 460, 461 table of dimensions of................ . 
Woodworth, J. B., fracture Sens. on the — 
Wadi-Halfa oii. clsn ocean eee eae 353 grander Scale. (iin Gee eee : 
Wrialthamstowieeaetr etter an nerene 362, 368, 374; 379 | Wirtemberg....:.«... 9:5. .os seer eee 
Walther, To.cccoe.varaseiteue eater eek cane ene 293 
Warner, L., on stone implements from the Wana River Video hie cei 387, 393, 396, 507426 
excavations at Anau........ 477-484 | Yarkand Darya... .........eceeeet ee eeee : 
on skeletons excavated at Anau...... 484-494] Yarkitely Glaciersé .< 420. .xue - ee 
on work done in Terrace II, North Yellow days caused by dust... ...705.-5 ae 
Kurcanse een era eee 482 
Warped loess ce of Samarkand......... 283% | Zend-A neste. ooiaca bee sagen eee «eee } 
Warping of Karategin (274200 85-10 eer ee 269 .| Zemishan Glacter 2... ajnc<u./suncoue  euskel AG 
of the plains in the Aralo-Caspian Basin. 292, 295 oases of the. :...5...5.. «sa Mae ee 3 
Watussl. <r esc ca auth ree eee ee uae 368 valley, physiography of.............- 278 
Wedda.e cere ester 455, 456, 457, 459, 460, 461 possibility of diverting the............ 
Westerevelnae ot 1 ae Geec eee 3925 395, 3906, 397, 402. ||| Zielkanale... eicewier eer eee she ats 
412, 413,A19—423, 425-428: ||) ZOTOAStEL ... 1. 1 nc nueteieire ee see AL 
Wheat and barley, casts of, in potsherds 
from: Asia Ly insane yeas 471-473 s 
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